Table 1—
Characteristics of youth with type 1 diabetes by level of dietary adherence
| Lowest | Middle | Highest | Overall | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | 41 (34) | 39 (33) | 39 (33) | 119 |
| Age (years) | 12.2 ± 1.6 | 12.4 ± 1.7 | 11.8 ± 1.5 | 12.1 ± 1.6 |
| Female sex | 24 (59) | 14 (36) | 21 (54) | 59 (50) |
| BMI (Z score) | 0.5 ± 0.6 | 0.8 ± 0.7 | 0.8 ± 1.0 | 0.7 ± 0.8 |
| Family structure | ||||
| Two-parent household | 30 (75) | 33 (85) | 36 (92) | 99 (83) |
| One-parent household | 10 (25) | 6 (15) | 3 (8) | 19 (17) |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||
| White | 25 (63) | 29 (74) | 31 (80) | 85 (72) |
| Black | 9 (22) | 3 (8) | 2 (5) | 14 (12) |
| Hispanic | 4 (10) | 4 (10) | 2 (5) | 10 (9) |
| Other | 2 (5) | 3 (8) | 4 (10) | 9 (7) |
| Annual income | ||||
| >$100,000 | 12 (31) | 13 (35) | 16 (44) | 41 (37) |
| $50,000 to $100,000 | 15 (38) | 16 (43) | 15 (42) | 46 (41) |
| $30,000 to $50,000 | 3 (8) | 3 (8) | 5 (14) | 11 (10) |
| <$30,000 | 9 (23) | 5 (14) | 0 (0) | 14 (12) |
| Caregiver educational level | ||||
| Graduate school | 6 (15) | 4 (10) | 6 (16) | 16 (13) |
| College or associate degree | 15 (39) | 16 (41) | 21 (55) | 52 (45) |
| High school or GED | 16 (41) | 18 (46) | 11 (29) | 45 (39) |
| Less than high school | 2 (5) | 1 (3) | 0 (0) | 3 (3) |
| Insulin dose (units · kg−1 · day−1) | 1.0 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.3 |
| Insulin delivery | ||||
| Insulin pump | 11 (27) | 9 (24) | 18 (46) | 38 (32) |
| ≥4 injections/day | 6 (14) | 11 (29) | 9 (23) | 26 (22) |
| 3 injections/day | 11 (27) | 14 (37) | 7 (18) | 32 (27) |
| ≤2 injections/day | 13 (32) | 4 (10) | 5 (13) | 22 (19) |
| BGM frequency* | ||||
| >5/day | 6 (15) | 12 (31) | 18 (46) | 36 (30) |
| 3–5/day | 25 (61) | 24 (61) | 19 (49) | 68 (57) |
| <3/day | 10 (24) | 3 (8) | 2 (5) | 15 (13) |
| A1C level (%)* | ||||
| Unadjusted | 9.1 ± 1.4†‡ | 8.2 ± 1.1† | 8.0 ± 1.1‡ | 8.4 ± 1.3 |
| Adjusted§ | 9.0 ± 2.0§¶ | 8.1 ± 2.0§ | 8.4 ± 2.1¶ | — |
Data are means ± SD or n (%). §Adjusted for age, sex, BGM frequency, daily insulin dose, pump use, parent education.
*
P < 0.05 based on χ2 (categorical) or ANOVA (continuous), comparing differences across three levels of dietary adherence.
†
P = 0.003;
‡
P = 0.0001;
§
P = 0.004;
¶
P = 0.06. GED, General Education Development.