TABLE 3.

Epidemiological studies with internal controls that negate the HWE^*

Worker Comparison	Reference	PROFAC × 100 Lung Cancer (%)
Badged/unbadged U.S. DOE female workers	Wilkinson el al. 2000	49
Radiologists/physicians, UK	Berrington el al. 2001	26–100
High-dose/control shipyard workers	Sponsler and Cameron 2005	7
Monitored/unmonitored UK nuclear workers	Carpenter el al. 1998	39
Radiation/non-radiation UKAEA nuclear workers	Atkinson el al. 2004	11
Radiation/non-radiation UK nuclear workers	McGeoghegan and Binks 2000a,b; 2001	3–43

^*In each study, radiation-exposed cohorts were compared with non-radiation cohorts in the same workplace or environment to reduce the biases resulting in the HWE.