Table 2.
Standardized Cognitive Assessments*
| Study | No. | Cocaine Effect | Outcome Measures | Assessment Ages | Tobacco Use | Alcohol Use | Marijuana Use | Selection/Matching Criteria | Controlled Variables | Other Effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alessandri et al,63 1998 | 15H 19L 78 - |
No cocaine dose effect on PDI, no cocaine main effect on MDI, but interaction of heavy cocaine with age associated with lower MDI | BSID-II | 8 and 18 months | DC | DC | DC | All with biological mothers | Environmental risk, neonatal medical risk, sex | Among lightly exposed, increased environmental risk associated with decreased MDI |
| Azuma and Chasnoff,64 1993 | 92 + 25 poly 45 - |
No cocaine effect | SBIS | 3 years | R | C Analyzed as single category | All drug users in prenatal care by 15 weeks and in drug treatment | OFC, HSQ, perseverance, CBCL | Poor HSQ and poor perseverance associated with lower IQ | |
| Chasnoff et al,70 1992 | 106 + 45 poly 81 - |
Cocaine exposed not different from other drugs, but lower on MDI and PDI at 6 months than unexposed | BSID | 3, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months | R | C Analyzed as single category | All drug users in prenatal care by 15 weeks and in drug treatment | Sex, OFC | Smaller OFC correlated with MDI at 12, 18, and 24 months, OFC at birth associated with PDI at 6 months and MDI at 24 months | |
| Coles et al,71 1999 | 25 preterm + 32 full-term + 22 preterm - 26 full-term - |
No cocaine effect | BSID | 8 weeks corrected for prematurity | R | R | R | Maternal age ≥19, English speaking, singleton or first-born twin, no O2 <28 days, no seizures, no grade III or IV IVH, not breastfed | ||
| Graham et al,77 1992 | 30 + 20 poly 30 - |
No cocaine effect | BSID | 19.7 months | R | R | C | Tobacco, marital status, obstetric history, ethnicity, self-referred to Mother Risk Counseling | Maternal IQ | Maternal IQ associated with MDI |
| Griffith et al,78 1994 | 93 + 24 poly 25 - |
Cocaine-exposed lower than controls on verbal reasoning | SBIS | 3 years | R | C Analyzed as single category; associated with decreased abstract reasoning | All drug users in prenatal care by 15 weeks and in drug treatment | Caregiver, child’s sex, OFC, CBCL, and Summative Attention Scale of SBIS | Drug-free environment associated with better scores on verbal reasoning among cocaine-exposed | |
| Hurt et al,79 1995 | 101 + 118 - |
No cocaine effect | BSID | 6, 12, 18, 24, and 30 months | C | C | C | Medicaid, all <34 weeks’ gestation, cocaine use in at least 2 trimesters | Congenital syphilis, maternal age and education, foster care | Foster care associated with lower MDI at 18 months |
| Hurt et al,82 1997 | 71 + 78 - |
No cocaine effect | WPPSI-R | 4 years | C Negative association with performance IQ | C | C | Medicaid | Maternal age and education, gravidity, parity, prenatal care, sex, foster care | |
| Hurt et al,83 1998 | 72 + 78 - |
Neither prenatal nor concurrent maternal cocaine use associated with full-scale IQ ≤90 | WPPSI-R | 4 years | C | C | C | Medicaid | HOME, PCIS, sex, child age, foster care, day care/Head Start attendance, parental education, gravidity, parity, prenatal care, current cocaine use | Higher HOME scores and better PCIS associated with full-scale IQs above 90 |
| Jacobson et al,85 1996 | 86H 48L 330 - |
No cocaine effect | BSID | 13 months | DC | DC | R | All black, all received prenatal care | Maternal age, depression, prenatal visits, HOME, parity, examiner, sex, age at test, continued maternal drug use | |
| Kilbride et al,89 2000 | 111+ 41 - |
No cocaine effect | BSID, SBIS | 6, 12, and 24 months (BSID); 36 months (SBIS) | C | C | R | All from same ZIP code, 36 weeks’ gestation, no NICU care, women referred for drug treatment excluded | Placement, gestational age, maternal age and education, OFC at birth, birth weight | Birth weight associated with MDI at 12 months; with case management, children cared for by biological mothers have higher SBIS verbal scores; children in care of relatives have highest overall scores |
| Mayes et al,91 1995 | 61 + 47 - |
Cocaine univariately associated with PDI, but not after multivariate control | BSID | 3 months | C | C | C | All with biological mothers | Maternal age and education, OCS, prenatal care, birth weight, birth length, and OFC at birth | |
| Richardson et al,93 1996 | 28 + 523 - |
No cocaine effect | SBIS, WRAT-R | 6 years | DC | DC | DC | All in prenatal care by 5 months | Maternal ethnicity, IQ, current maternal alcohol/drug use, self-esteem, HSQ, child’s grade | |
| Singer et al,96 1994 | 41 + 41 - |
Lower MDI and PDI among cocaine exposed | BSID | 16 months corrected for prematurity | R | R | R | All black, all receiving AFDC, severity of BPD, all VLBW | Chronological age at testing, IVH, foster placement | |
*
PDI indicates Psychomotor Development Index; MDI, Mental Development Index; BSID-II, Bayley Scales of Infant Development, 2nd ed; SBIS, Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale; HSQ, Home Screening Questionnaire; CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist; BSID, Bayley Scales of Infant Development; WPPSI-R, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised; HOME, Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment; PCIS, Parent Caregiver Involvement Scale; OCS, Obstetrical Complication Scale; WRAT-R, Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised; AFDC, Aid for Families of Dependent Children; BPD, bronchopulmonary dysplasia; and VLBW, very low birth weight.