TABLE 3—

Summary of Published Studies (N=20) Related to the Promotion of Foods and Beverages to African Americans: 1992–2006

Citation, Study Objective, Setting, and Time Period	Objective and Method	Key Findings
Bang and Reece49; promotion (television advertisements); ABC, CBS, FOX, UPN and Nickelodeon; February and March 1997	To examine portrayals of African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans in advertisements run during general-audience children’s television programming on national networks, including associations of race/ethnicity with product type. Content analysis of 813 television advertisements that showed human actors, shown during cartoons or other children’s programming on national networks.	African American actors were more likely to be shown in food advertisements (61.1%) than in toy advertisements (17.6%). Comparable percentages for White actors were 46.2% in food advertisements and 33.2% in toy advertisements.
Duerksen et al.58 ; promotion (magazine advertisements); four highest-circulating general interest magazines oriented to African American, Hispanic, and mainstream (predominantly White) women; published in June, July, and August 2002	To evaluate variations in health-related advertisements and health promotion cues in magazines catering to Hispanic, African American, and White women. Content analysis of all health-related advertising in 12 women’s magazines.	Health-promoting advertisements were generally less common, and health-diminishing advertisements were more common in the African American and Hispanic magazines compared with mainstream magazines. Promotions for unhealthful food and drink (not counting alcohol) composed 32% of all ads in African American magazines and 29% of all ads in mainstream magazines. African American magazines were more likely than were the mainstream magazines to advertise alcohol and fast food. 55% of advertisements for unhealthful products in African American magazines used models (African American), whereas only 6% of the advertisements in mainstream magazines used models (White). Mainstream magazines used White models in health-promoting advertisements (58% of such advertisements; this finding is not specific to food and beverage advertisements).
Harrison59; promotion (television advertisements); northcentral Illinois; 5-week period in Spring 2003	To describe attributes of characters and foods in food advertisements in general-audience television programming popular with children. Content analysis of 380 food advertisements with human characters in 40 hours of television programming, comparing advertisements featuring at least 1 African American character (n = 147) with those with no African American characters (n = 233). Advertised foods were characterized and analyzed for the compliance of their nutritional content with the federal government’s recommended daily values (RDVs) of selected nutrients.	Advertisements with African American characters were more likely than were advertisements without African American characters to feature convenience foods, more likely to be sponsored by fast-food companies, and more likely to promote foods eaten for lunch rather than breakfast. Advertisements with no African American characters were more likely to feature bread or cereals and candies, sweets, or soft drinks and foods higher in sugar. Advertisements with African American characters were less likely to include adults and more likely to include overweight characters. Eating behavior and body size were correlated in the advertisements with African American characters but not in advertisements without African American characters. Most advertisements depicted snacking rather than meals, and the nutritional values of foods advertised was not in line with dietary recommendations.
Henderson and Baldasty51; promotion (television advertisements); ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox ,UPN, and WB; spring 1999 season	To note the amount and type of representation of people of color in prime-time television advertisements, including associations of race/ethnicity with product type. Content analysis of 825 advertisements on general market and African American–oriented television programming from 2 episodes each of 31 national prime-time television shows (top 10 situation comedies, top 5 dramas, and 11 African American–oriented programs).	Advertisements with people of colora had substantial representation related to 4 product categories: soft drinks, candy and gum, fast food, athletic shoes and clothing, and clothes. For example, people of color had primary roles in 42.8% of 112 fast food product advertisements analyzed. Whites dominated in advertisements for other product categories, including non–fast food, household products, and cars. Advertisements for fast food that featured people of color were almost always tied to a product promotion at the franchise, highlighting inexpensive food and opportunities for contests or free merchandise. In food-related advertisements, Whites were shown preparing foods or having home-prepared meals, whereas people of color were usually shown consuming fast food or convenience food.
Henderson and Kelly60; promotion (television advertisements); NBC, ABC, CBS, Fox, and UPN; September and October 2003	To document the types of foods and weight-related nutritional claims in advertisements on general market and African American television programming. Content analysis of 553 advertisements during 101.5 television advertising hours on general market (302 advertisements; 69.5 hours) and African American–oriented (251 advertisements; 32 hours) television programming on 5 national networks.	The percentage of food advertisements on African American vs general market programs was higher (24% vs 14.9% of advertisements, respectively); mean number of food advertisements per 30 minutes of programming was 3.97 vs 2.42, respectively, in the two markets. Fast food promotions were more common in the African American vs general market (54% vs 32% of advertisements, respectively), and promotion of sit-down restaurants less common (8.4% x vs 18.9%, respectively). Packaged-food advertisements on African American shows were more likely to be for candy, soda, meat, and eggs compared with more advertisements for breads, cereals, grains, pasta, fruits and vegetables, desserts, or alcohol in the general market programming.
Lewis et al.61(also Sloan et al.54 and Sloane et al.64); promotion (in-store) and place (restaurant characteristics, retail food outlets); Los Angeles, CA; 2002–2004	To examine the availability and promotion of more-healthful or less-healthful food options and the greater or fewer number of those options at restaurants in less affluent and more affluent neighborhoods; to examine the availability and promotion of greater or fewer numbers of those options. Community-based market inventory of 659 restaurants within each of 3 categories: fast food, fast casual, and sit-down dining. A target area with 14% to 87% African American residents and moderate to low incomes (348 restaurants surveyed by community residents) was compared with a higher income area with an average of 8% African Americans (311 restaurants; surveyed by graduate students).	Compared with restaurants in more affluent areas with fewer African Americans, restaurants in less affluent neighborhoods with more African American residents were: less likely to be full service (27% in African American communities vs 58% in comparison area) less likely to offer healthier options (e.g., broiled vs fried) more likely to promote specific items, but less likely to label and promote healthy items less likely to receive high marks on cleanliness, customer service, accessible parking, ease of access to public transportation, and safety and security
Pratt and Pratt48 ; promotion (magazine advertisements); Ebony and Essence (African Americans) and Ladies’ Home Journal (general market); 1980–1982 and 1990–1992	To compare the food advertisements and health-promotional messages in 3 consumer magazines that target African Americans or the general market, and examine changes over time. Content analysis of 3319 advertisements in magazines with a high percentage of female readers in either African American or general market readers.	A high proportion of food and beverage advertisements in Ebony and Essence, (62 % and 47%, respectively) were for alcoholic beverages, compared with less than 2% of the Ladies’ Home Journal advertisements. Advertisements for nonalcoholic beverages increased over time, less so in Ladies’ Home Journal, whereas advertisements for alcoholic beverages decreased. Nonalcoholic beverages were 17% and 24% of advertisements in Ebony and Essence in 1990 through 1992, respectively, compared with about 7% in Ladies’ Home Journal. Ebony and Essence carried almost no advertisements (0% to 3% in any category) for vegetables, fruit, and milk and dairy products, compared with 7% to 12% of Ladies’ Home Journal advertisements in these categories averaged for both time periods. The proportion of advertisements for milk and dairy, and fruits and vegetables increased with time in Ladies’ Home Journal but decreased or did not change in Ebony and Essence.
Tirodkar and Jain55; promotion (television advertisements); WB, UPN, and NBC; fall 1999, first season	To compare portrayals of food during popular African American television shows with those during general programming. Content analysis of verbal and visual references to foods or beverages in television programming and advertisements aired during the 4 most-watched situation comedy television shows in the general market and 4 top shows in the African American market.	The number and type of references to food or beverages per show was similar in the 2 markets. African American–oriented shows aired more food commercials than did those in the general market (4.8 vs 2.9 per 30 minutes, respectively). African American vs general market advertisements put a greater emphasis on soft drinks (13% vs 2%), candy (30% vs 14%), and other desserts (6% vs 0%), and less emphasis on bread and grains (6% vs 12%) as well as alcohol (0% vs 18%).

Note. GIS = geographic information systems. All highlighted findings were reported as statistically significant at P < .05 in the source article. ^aThe article notes that minority groups other than African Americans represented about 1%, and the article makes most specific reference to African Americans vs other ethnic groups in the discussion of findings.50