FIG. 5.

Expanded VMH model for activation of glucose counterregulation to include stimulatory and inhibitory input from the CRF family of neuropeptides. The model posits that hypoglycemia provokes the activation of AMP kinase in VMH glucose-inhibited neurons. Simultaneously, the inhibitory neuronal inputs, urocortin III and GABA, are suppressed, and the CRF metabolic stress pathway is activated. Together, these changes act in concert to fully activate downstream neural pathways to restore glucose homeostasis.