Table 4 Percentage of US and Japanese residents who reported the risk of patient complication at which they would speak up.

Scenario: Suppose you are in the OR and doing a difficult operation with a senior surgeon who is concentrating deeply on the procedure. You notice that the senior surgeon has done something that might lead to a serious complication for the patient but the surgeon either does not seem to be aware of the problem or, in your view, has made a poor judgment. You are considering speaking up to “challenge” the senior surgeon.
Chance of the serious complication	Never challenge†	10%	1%	0.10%	0.0001%	p value*
US residents with 2 years of training or less	0	34.4	43.8	12.5	9.4	0.07
JP residents with 2 years of training or less	5.5	47.3	30.9	12.7	3.6

*p value calculated by Wilcoxon rank sum test.

†Regardless of the chance of the complication, the subject would not challenge seniors