Table 1.
Methodological overview of examinations (listed alphabetically) of the relations between smoking and posttraumatic stress disorder.
| AUTHOR(S) / YEAR | SAMPLE | MEASURES OF PRIMARY VARIABLES | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Smoking |
Trauma |
PTSD |
||
| Acierno, Kilpatrick, Resnick, Saunders, & Best, 1996 | National household probability sample of adult (Mage = 48.1 years) women collected in the NWS (N = 4,008) | Smoking history: - study specific interview questions |
Lifetime and recent assault: - computer-assisted interview |
Current and lifetime DSM-III-R PTSD diagnoses: - NWS PTSD and depression modules |
| Acierno and colleagues, 2000 | National household probability sample of adolescents between 12 and 17 years old (N = 4,023) | Smoking history: - study specific interview questions |
Lifetime experienced or witnessed assault: - study specific questions |
Current and lifetime DSM-IV PTSD diagnoses: - Modified NWS PTSD and depression modules |
| Anda and colleagues, 1999 | Adult (Mage = approximately 56 years) members of an HMO in southern California (N = 9,215) | Early smoking initiation, ever smoked, current and heavy smoking: - Study specific questions |
Childhood trauma: - CTS - Wyatt |
N/A |
| Beckham and colleagues, 1995 | Male treatment-seeking combat-exposed Vietnam veterans with PTSD (Mage = 45 years; N = 124) | Cigarettes per day and nicotine dependence: - FTQ Reasons for smoking: - Combination of Motives for Smoking Scale and RFS |
N/A | PTSD: - SCID-III-R - The Mississippi Scale |
| Beckham and colleagues, 1996 | Treatment-seeking male Vietnam combat veteran (Mage = 46 years) smokers (Mcigarettes per day = 31; N = 25) | Smoking withdrawal symptoms: -modified Smoking Withdrawal Questionnaire |
N/A | PTSD diagnoses: - Either SCID-III-R or CAPS PTSD Symptoms: - Mississippi Scale |
| Beckham and colleagues, 1997 | Vietnam combat-exposed Veterans with (N = 381) and without (N = 64) PTSD (total N = 445) | Smoking status and levels: - Study specific questions on Likert-type scales Reasons for smoking: - Motives for Smoking Scale |
N/A | PTSD diagnoses and symptom levels: -Combinations of the following: SCID for DSM-III-R, CAPS, clinical interview, Mississippi Scale, Combat Exposure Scale |
| Beckham and colleagues, 2004 | Adult (Mage = 49 years) male combatexposed Vietnam veterans with (N = 61) and without (N = 56) PTSD (total >N = 117) | Smoking status, levels, and timing: - Study specific questions |
Combat exposure: - Combat Exposure Scale |
PTSD diagnoses: - SCID for DSM-III-R PTSD symptoms: - Mississippi Scale |
| Beckham and colleagues, 2005 | Adult (Mage = 44 years) smokers (Mcigarettes per day = approximately 21) with (N = 63) and without (N = 32) PTSD recruited from the community (total N = 95) | Nicotine dependence: - Smoking histories questionnaire - FTQ |
N/A | PTSD diagnoses and symptoms: - CAPS - Davidson Trauma Scale |
| Boscarino, 2006 | 15,288 Vietnam era U.S. Army veterans from the Vietnam Era Survey who contacted via telephone between 1985 and 2000 | - Study specific structured telephone interview administered by the Research Triangle Institute | N/A | - Validated study-specific structured telephone interview administered by the Research Triangle Institute |
| Breslau, Davis, & Schultz, 2003 | Epidemiologically defined sample of young adults (age 21 to 30 at baseline) followed across a 10-year follow-up period from 1989 to 1999 (N = 899) | Nicotine dependence: - DIS for DSM-III-R |
Trauma exposure: - DIS for DSM-III-R |
PTSD: - DIS for DSM-III-R |
| Breslau, Novak, & Kessler, 2004 | Adults who participated in the NCS (N = 4,411) | Onset of daily smoking and nicotine dependence: - DIS for DSM-III-R |
N/A | Lifetime and current PTSD diagnoses: - DIS for DSM-III-R |
| Buckley, Susannah, Bedard, Dewulf, & Greif, 2004 | Review of medical records from 1996 – 2002 in VA PTSD clinic (N = 826) | Smoking status: - HRA |
N/A | PTSD: - CAPS or SCID-IV |
| Dobie and colleagues (2004) | Adult women (Mage = 45 years) receiving outpatient services at a VA facility in the Northwestern United States (N = 1,206) | Smoking status: - Study specific survey question |
N/A | Past month PTSD screen: - PCL-C (diagnostic cutpoint ≥ 50) |
| Feldner and colleagues, in press | Daily smokers (at least 5 cigarettes per day) with exposure to at least one traumatic event that met criterion A for PTSD defined by DSM-IV-TR (N = 100) | Smoking status and level: - FTQ Reasons for Smoking: - RFS |
Trauma exposure: - PDS |
Past month PTSD symptoms: - PDS Likely diagnoses of PTSD: - PDS |
| Ganz, 2000 | Random, stratified probability sample of adults in Central Harlem, New York from between 1992 and 1994 (N = 695) | Smoking status: - Study specific question |
Trauma exposure: -Study specific questionnaire |
N/A |
| Gleser, Green, & Winget, 1981 | Survivors of the Buffalo Creek flood of 1972, occurring in West Virginia, who filed law suits for psychological distress and responding to a questionnaire survey (N = 143) | Smoking status: - Checklist for Family Disruption Indicators -Psychosocial Disruption Checklist |
Trauma: - Living in the Buffalo Creek valley during the time of the flood. |
N/A |
| Hapke and colleagues, 2005 | Random sample of adults aged 18–64 in northern German cities (N = 4,075) | Nicotine dependence: - Munich CIDI Smoking quit rate: - Percentage of “ever smokers” not smoking in most recent 4 weeks |
Trauma: - Munich CIDI - Trauma checklist |
PTSD diagnoses: - Munich CIDI |
| Hertzberg, Moore, Feldman, & Beckham, 2001 | Smoking-focused treatment-seeking adult (Mage = 50 years) daily smoking (Mcigarettes per day = 33) male Vietnam veterans (N = 15) | Smoking status: - Self-report and expired carbon monoxide analysis |
N/A | PTSD diagnoses: - CAPS PTSD symptoms: - Davidson Trauma Scale |
| Joseph, Yule, Williams, & Hodgkinson, 1993 | Adult (Mage = 35 years) survivors of a 1987 ferry accident that killed 193 of approximately 600 people on board | Change in smoking level: - Study specific question |
PTSD avoidance and intrusive symptoms: - IES |
|
| Kaplan and colleagues, 1998 | Caucasian adolescents (age range = 12 – 18 years) from Long Island, NY, who had (N = 99; Median age = 16) or had not (N = 99; Median age = 15) been physically abused. Abused youth drawn from the NY State Department of Social Services Register for Child Abuse between 1989 and 1991 | Smoking status: - Measure not identified |
Abuse histories: - CTS |
PTSD diagnoses: - SCID for DSM-III-R |
| Koenen and colleagues, 2003 | Monozygotic male-male twin pairs who served in the military during Vietnam war era from the VET Registry (N = 1,874 pairs) | Lifetime dependence: - DIS-III-R |
Combat exposure: - Study specific interview |
Lifetime PTSD: - DIS-III-R |
| Koenen and colleagues, 2005 | VET Registry described above | Lifetime tobacco dependence onset: - DIS-III-R |
Combat exposure: - Study specific interview |
Lifetime PTSD onset: - DIS-III-R |
| Lasser and colleagues, 2000 | Adults ranging in age between 15 and 54 years who participated in the NCS (N = 4,411) | Smoking status: - CIDI Smoking quit rate: - Proportion of lifetime smokers not currently smoking |
N/A | Current or lifetime PTSD diagnoses: - CIDI |
| Lemon, Verhoek-Oftedahl, & Donnelly, 2002 | Random sample of adult (18 – 54 years) women from Rhode Island (N 1,561) | Smoking status: - Study specific questions |
IPV: - Study specific questions |
N/A |
| Lipschitz and colleagues, 2003 | Inner-city adolescent (Mage= 17.2) trauma-exposed girls consecutively recruited from medical clinics after routine appointments (N = 104) | Smoking status and level: - Personal Experience Screening Questionnaire |
DSM-IV-defined trauma exposure: - Child Exposure to Violence Checklist |
PTSD Diagnoses: - K-SADS-PL Past month DSM-IV-defined PTSD Symptoms: - Child and Adolescent PTSD Checklist |
| McClernon and colleagues, 2005 | Adult (Mage = 44) trauma-exposed smokers (Mcigarettes per day = 22) with current (N = 74), or no lifetime history of (N =36), PTSD (total N = 110) | Nicotine dependence: - FTND Anticipated pleasure from smoking: - Questionnaire on Smoking Urges |
N/A | PTSD: - CAPS PTSD Symptoms: - Davidson Trauma Scale |
| McFall and colleagues, 2005 | Treatment-seeking adult (Mage = 52 years) primarily male (92%) veteran daily smokers (≥ 10 cigarettes per day) who had been smoking for about 31 years with chronic PTSD (N = 66) recruited from a PTSD clinic who expressed willingness to participate in smoking cessation treatment | Nicotine dependence: - FTND Smoking abstinence: - Self-report and expired carbon monoxide analysis |
N/A | DSM-IV defined PTSD diagnoses: - measure not specified PTSD symptoms: - PTSD Checklist |
| Mezey, Evans, & Hobdell, 2002 | Primarily female (89%) adult (Mage = 45 years) family members (N = 35) of homicide victims who had received help from a national charity for crime victims in England | Change in smoking level: - Unidentified study specific question |
Identified as trauma victims via receipt of charity from a charity for crime victims | N/A |
| Nandi, Galea, Ahern, & Vlahov, 2005 | Random sample of adults (Mage = 42.6 years) living in New York city interviewed four months after the September, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center (N = 2,001) | DSM-IV-defined nicotine dependence: - National Survey on Drug Use and Health Interview Smoking status and level: - Study specific questions |
Trauma exposure: - Study specific interview questions |
DSM-IV-defined PTSD: - NWS PTSD module |
| Op den Velde and colleagues, 2002 | Older adult (ages 60 to 65 years) male veterans of the Dutch Civilian Resistance against the Nazi occupation of The Netherlands with (N = 72) and without PTSD (N = 53; total N = 125) | Smoking status: - Study specific question |
N/A | PTSD: - Dutch version of the PTSD portion of the SCID for DSMIII-R |
| Pawlak & DeFronzo, 1993 | Adults (Mage = 43.1) who participated in the national 1988 General Social Survey (N = 595) | Smoking status: - Study specific question |
Trauma exposure: - Study specific questions |
N/A |
| Perkonigg, Kessler, Storz, & Wittchen,2000 | Adolescent and young adults (aged 14 to 24 years) in metropolitan Munich (N = 3,021) | DSM-IV-defined nicotine dependence onset: - Munich CIDI |
DSM-IV-defined trauma exposure: - Munich CIDI |
Onset of DSM-IV-defined PTSD: - Munich CIDI |
| Pfefferbaum and colleagues, 2002 | Support-seeking persons after the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing were examined approximately 6 months after the bombing (N = 84) | Smoking status and change in smoking: - Study specific question |
Trauma exposure: - Study specific questions |
PTSD symptoms: - IES-R |
| Schnurr and Spiro,1999 | Older-adult (Mage = 65 years) male combat veterans (N = 921) from the Boston VA Normative Aging Study | Smoking status: - Self-reported yes/no question |
Trauma exposure: - Combat Exposure Scale |
PTSD: - The Mississippi Scale |
| Shalev, Bleich, & Ursano, 1990 | Lebanon War Combat exposed adult veterans with (N = 50) and without (N = 48) PTSD (total N = 98) | Smoking status: - Unidentified medical symptoms questionnaire |
N/A | PTSD: - Unidentified clinical interview |
| Smith, Christiansen, Vincent, & Hann, 1999 | Random sample of adults (overall Mage = approximately 43 years) interviewed between 1995 and 1996. Participants were residents of the Oklahoma City metropolitan area (N = 2,030) after the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995 and residents of the Indianapolis metropolitan area (N = 1,152) | Smoking status, initiation, and change in level: - Study specific questions |
Trauma exposure: - Study specific questions |
PTSD symptoms: - Study specific questions |
| Thorndike, Wernicke, Pearlman, & Haaga, 2006 | Relations between nicotine dependence levels, PTSD symptoms, and gender among daily (at least 10 cigarettes per day; M = 17) smokers recruited from the community (Mage = 41 years; N = 157) | Nicotine dependence: -FTND |
N/A | PTSD diagnoses: - SCID for DSM-IV PTSD Symptoms: - PDS |
| Vest, Catlin, & Brownson, 2002 | Random sample of adult (≥ 18 years old) women from Connecticut, Massachusetts, Montana, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington (N = 18,415) collected between 1995 and 1999 in the BRFSS | Smoking status: - Study specific question |
Trauma exposure: - Study specific questions |
N/A |
| Vlahov and colleagues, 2002 | Random sample of adult (Mage = 42) residents of Manhattan, near the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center (N = 988), interviewed 5 to 8 weeks after attack | Smoking status and level: - Computer-assisted study specific interview questions |
Trauma exposure: - Computer-assisted study-specific interview questions |
DSM-IV-defined PTSD diagnoses and symptoms: - Computer-assisted modified DIS |
| Vlahov and colleagues, 2004 | Random sample of adult (Mage = 42) residents of entire New York City metropolitan area interviewed 6 to 9 months after attack on the World Trade Center (N = 1570) | Smoking status and level: - Study specific interview questions |
Trauma exposure: - Study-specific interview questions |
DSM-IV-defined PTSD diagnoses and symptoms: - Computer-assisted modified DIS |
| Weaver & Etzel, 2003 | Adult (Mage = 34 years) victims of severe battering (N = 62) recruited from social service agencies (e.g., domestic violence shelters, advocacy agencies) | Nicotine dependence: - FTND |
IPV: - Revised CTS - Psychological Maltreament of Women Inventory |
PTSD symptom levels: - PDS |
| Weinbaum and colleagues, 2001 | Random sample of females in California (N = 3,408) from the 1998 California Women’s Health Survey | Smoking status: - Computer assisted interview |
Intimate partner physical domestic violence: - Modified CTS |
N/A |
Note: PTSD = Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, ND = Nicotine Dependence, IPV = Interpersonal Violence, IPP-DV = intimate partner physical domestic violence, DSM = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (APA, 1980, 1987, 1994). Datasets VA = Veterans Affairs, NCS = National Comorbidity Survey (NCS; Kessler et al., 1994), BRFSS = Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (Remington et al., 1988), VET Registry = Vietnam Era Twin Registry (Eisen et al., 1987), Boston Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study (Bosse et al., 1984), NWS = National Women’s Study (Resnick et al., 1993). Smoking, PTSD, and Trauma Measures HRA = Health Risk Appraisal (HRA; University of Michigan, 1996), FTND = Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND; Heatherton et al., 1991), FTQ = Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire (Fagerstrom, 1978), K-SADS- PL = Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Aged Children – Present and Lifetime version (Kaufman et al., 1997), DIS = Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS; Robins et al., 1981), Personal Experience Screening Questionnaire (Winters, 1991), CIDI = Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI; World Health Organization Version 1.0), modified Smoking Withdrawal Questionnaire (Shiffman & Jarvik, 1976), RFS = Reasons for Smoking questionnaire (Ikard et al., 1969), SCID = Structured Clinical Interview (Spitzer & Williams, 1989), ADIS = Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (DiNardo et al., 1983), ADIS-IV = Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (Brown et al., 1994), CAPS = Clinician Administered PTSD scale (Blake et al., 1995), PCL-C = PTSD Checklist Civilian Version (Weathers & Ford, 1996), PDS = Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (Foa, 1995), CTS = Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, 1979), Maltreament of women inventory (Tolman, 1999), Mississippi Scale = The Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related PTSD (Keane et al., 1988), Davidson Trauma Scale (Davidson et el., 1997), IES-R = Impact of Events Scale – Revised (Weiss & Marmar, 1997), CES = Combat Exposure Scale (Keane et al., 1989).