Fig. 4.

Glutathionine (GSH) redox network. A partial list of GSH-dependent proteins illustrates the need for research to understand the integrated function of these redox systems. 1) GSH is synthesized by a two-step pathway in which abundance of two enzymes, glutamate cysteine ligase (GSH0, GSH1) and GSH synthetase (GSHB), determine synthesis rate (97). GSH is degraded by γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT) at the surface of the brush border of the kidney, small intestine, and a number of other tissues, and probably also in the cisternae of the secretory pathway (142). 2) GSH is transported out of cells by several multidrug resistance proteins (MRP) (12). The chloride channel, which is mutated in cystic fibrosis (CFTR), also transports GSH (113), and GSH is transported into mitochondria by the dicarboxylate carrier (DIC) and a monocarboxylate carrier (OGCP) (103). GSH is transported into the cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum (13), but the molecular nature of the transporter is not known. 3) GSH is used by a number of GSH transferases (GST), which include microsomal and nonmicrosomal locations, to modify electrophilic chemicals (9). These are thought to largely function in detoxification, but some also act on biosynthetic intermediates for prostaglandins and leukotrienes. A fraction of GSH is present as S-nitroso-GSH, a transnitrosylating agent generated from nitric oxide or its metabolites (168). 4) GSH functions in metabolism as a coenzyme for formaldehyde dehydrogenase, glyoxylase, and other metabolic reactions (4, 168). In these reactions, GSH is cyclically removed by one reaction and regenerated in a second reaction. 5) Several thiol transferases, also known as glutaredoxins, catalyze introduction and removal of GSH (110, 114). 5a) Several proteins are regulated by GS-ylation, and many others undergo GS-ylation under oxidative stress conditions (44, 93). 6) GSH is used as a reductant for selenium-dependent GSH peroxidases (GPX) and selenium-independent peroxiredoxin-6 (PRX6) and some GSH transferases (GST). 6a) The product of these oxidative reactions, GSSG, is reduced back to GSH by GSSG reductase (GSHR) in most tissues. In sperm, thioredoxin reductase-3 (TRXR3) has activity toward both Trx and GSH. The proteins included in this figure are present in multiple cellular compartments and are differentially expressed in cells so that development of functional maps will require tissue-specific measurements of individual reaction rates. Protein designations and common names are from the UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot database. Abbreviations are as follows: GSH0, Glu-Cys ligase, regulatory; GSH1, Glu-Cys ligase, catalytic; GSHB, GSH synthetase; GGT1,4, 5, 6, γ-glutamyltransferase; DIC, mitochondrial dicarboxylate carrier (SLC25A10); OGCP, mitochondrial 2-oxoglutarate/malate carrier; CFTR, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance protein; MRP, multidrug resistance-associated protein; MRP2, canalicular multispecific organic anion transporter 1; GST, GSH transferase; ADHX, alcohol dehydrogenase class-3; ESTD, S-formyl-GSH hydrolase; GLO2, Glyoxalase II; HAGHL, hydroxyacylGSH hydrolase-like; LGUL, lactoylGSH lyase; MAAI , maleylacetoacetate isomerase; PTGD2, GSH-requiring prostaglandin D synthase; PTGDS, prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase; PTGES, prostaglandin E synthase; RBP1, RalA-binding protein 1 (RalBP1); GLRX, glutaredoxin and glutaredoxin-related proteins; YD286, glutaredoxin-like protein; GPX, GSH peroxidase; GSHR, GSSG reductase; TRXR3, thioredoxin reductase 3.