Table 1. Summary of Immune Responses in Humans during Hantavirus Infection.

Categorical Response	Immune Marker	Effect of Infection	Virus Speciesa	In Vitro/In Vivo	Tissue or Cell Typeb, Phase of Infectionc	References
Innate	RIG-I	Elevated	SNV	In vitro	HUVEC, ≤24 h p.i.	[79]
		Reduced	NY-1V	In vitro	HUVEC, ≤24 h p.i.	[37]
	TLR3	Elevated	SNV	In vitro	HUVEC, ≤24 h p.i.	[79]
	IFN-β	Elevated	PUUV, PHV, ANDV	In vitro	HSVEC, HMVEC-L, ≤24 h p.i.	[36],[80]
		Reduced	TULV, PUUV NSs	In vitro	COS-7 and MRC5 cells, ≤24 h p.i.	[32],[33]
	IFN-α	Elevated	PUUV, HTNV	In vitro	MФ, DCs, 4 days p.i.	[30]
		No change	HTNV	In vivo	Blood, acute	[81]
	IRF-3, IRF-7	Elevated	SNV, HTNV, PHV, ANDV	In vitro	HMVEC-L, ≤24 h p.i.	[33],[38]
	MxA	Elevated	HTNV, NY-1V, PHV, PUUV, ANDV, SNV, TULV	In vitro	MФ,HUVEC,HMVEC-L, 6 h–4 days p.i.	[36], [39]–[41],[79]
	MHC I and II	Elevated	HTNV	In vitro	DCs, 4 days p.i.	[30]
	CD11b	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Blood, acute	[82]
	CD40, CD80, CD86	Elevated	HTNV	In vitro	DCs, 4 days p.i.	[30],[83]
	NK cells	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	BAL, acute	[84]
Proinflammatory/Adhesion	IL-1β	Elevated	SNV, HTNV	In vivo	Blood, lungs, acute	[85],[86]
	IL-6	Elevated	SNV, PUUV	In vivo	Blood, lungs, acute	[85],[87],[88]
	TNF-α	Elevated	PUUV, SNV, HTNV	In vivo	Blood, lungs, kidney, acute	[85],[86],[88],[89]
		Elevated	HTNV	In vitro	DCs, 4 days p.i.	[30]
	CCL5	Elevated	SNV, HTNV	In vitro	HMVEC-L, HUVEC, 12 h–4 days p.i.	[38],[39],[90]
	CXCL8	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Blood, acute	[82]
		Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Men, blood, acute	[62]
		Elevated	TULV, PHV, HTNV	In vitro	HUVEC, MФ, 2–4 days p.i.	[39],[91]
	CXCL10	Elevated	SNV, HTNV, PHV	In vitro	HMVEC-L,HUVEC, 3–4 days p.i.	[38],[39]
		Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Men, blood, acute	[62]
	IL-2	Elevated	SNV, HTNV, PUUV	In vivo	Blood, lungs, acute	[82],[86]
	Nitric oxide	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Blood, acute	[92]
	GM-CSF	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Women, blood, acute	[62]
	ICAM, VCAM	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Kidney, acute	[87]
		Elevated	HTNV, PHV	In vitro	HUVEC, 3–4 days p.i.	[30],[39]
	E-selectin	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Blood, acute	[82]
CD8+ and CD4+ T cells	IFN-γ	Elevated	HTNV, SNV	In vivo	Blood, CD4+,CD8+, lungs, acute	[81],[86]
	CD8+	Elevated	DOBV, PUUV, HTNV	In vivo	Blood, BAL, acute	[52],[84],[93]
	Virus-specific IFN-γ+CD8+	Elevated	PUUV, SNV	In vivo	PBMC, acute	[45],[94]
	Perforin, Granzyme B	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Blood, acute	[95]
	CD4+CD25+ “activated”	Elevated	DOBV, PUUV	In vivo	PBMC, acute	[89],[93]
	IL-4	Elevated	SNV	In vivo	Lungs, acute	[86]
Regulatory	“suppressor T cells”d	Reduced	HTNV	In vivo	Blood, acute	[52]
	IL-10	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Blood, acute	[86]
	TGF-β	Elevated	PUUV	In vivo	Kidney, acute	[89]
Humoral	IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE	Elevated	All hantaviruses	In vivo	Blood	[4]

^aSNV, Sin Nombre virus; NY-1V, New York-1 virus; PUUV, Puumala virus; PHV, Prospect Hill virus; ANDV, Andes virus; TULV, Tula virus; HTNV, Hantaan virus; DOBV, Dobrava virus.

^bHUVEC, human umbilical vascular endothelial cells; HSVEC, human saphenous vein endothelial cells; HMVEC-L, human lung microvascular endothelial cells; COS-7, African green monkey kidney fibroblasts transformed with Simian virus 40; MRC5, human fetal lung fibroblasts; MФ, macrophages; DCs, dendritic cells; BAL, bronchoalveolar lavage, PBMC, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

^cAcute infection is during symptomatic disease in patients.

^dSuppressor T cells likely represent cells currently referred to as regulatory T cells.