Schematic of in−vitro (A) and in−vivo (B) optical recording paradigms. For the in−vitro paradigm (A), we stimulated lobster nerves with short current pulses (STIM), and the resulting field potential was recorded on the other side of the window (EP). Light from an LED, SLD, or LD (LS) transmitted through the recording chamber between crossed polarizers (POL1, POL2). The transmitted intensity was recorded with a photodiode (PD). For the in−vivo paradigm (B), epidural electrodes (LEEG, MEEG) recorded the electrical evoked responses after whisker twitch stimuli, and an LED or LD (LS), and a photodiode (PD) implanted over the barrel cortex recorded optical responses.