Figure 10.

Instantaneous velocity output of head rotation from forward dynamics simulations with the original elliptical cylinder model (solid line), the elliptical cylinder model including steady-state drag moment from CFD (dashed line) and the unsteady CFD model (circles). The three models were driven by the same input moment (e.g. from muscle activity). Note that the difference in kinematic output between the elliptical cylinder model and the unsteady CFD model becomes negligible after including the more accurate estimate of steady-state drag force (CFD simulation).