Table 3.

Summary of the two main types of crop–livestock integration in response to biological, economic and environmental constraints of specialized crop production. (Adapted from Entz et al. (2005).)

types of crop–livestock integration	major drivers for integration and location	requirements for successful integration
local, on-farm integration	soil sustainability	knowledge (education)
	on-farm salinity	labour
	on-farm economic stress	local markets
	shift to organic production	government support
	population pressure	access to capital
	energy costs
	pest resistance
area-wide integration	excess manure nutrients at farm scale	cooperation between groups of specialized crop and livestock producers
	widespread salinization	strong environmental legislation
	necessity to share resources with urban areas	government support and facilitation
	opportunities to recycle manure nutrients through crops	technology (e.g. geographical information systems:GIS)