Table 5.

Estimated cocaine-associated deficit in stable aptitude for language development under multiple covariate models for total language standard scores in children at 3, 5, and 7 years of age.

	Est. difference (D)	95% C.I.	p value
Initial model: includes severity of cocaine exposure, fetal growth, gestational age, IQ, child’s age and gender, and self-reported levels of prenatal alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana exposure	−0.071	−0.133, −0.009	0.026
Additional covariates:
Birth covariates:
Maternal age	−0.073	−0.136, −0.009	0.025
Maternal education level	−0.064	−0.125, −0.004	0.037
Primigravida (yes/no)	−0.073	−0.136, −0.009	0.025
Marital status (never/ever)	−0.069	−0.132, −0.007	0.028
Maternal employment (never/ever)	−0.068	−0.130, −0.006	0.031
Prenatal care visits (0–3 vs. 4+)	−0.073	−0.140, −0.005	0.034
Apgar score at 5 minutes	−0.067	−0.129, −0.004	0.036
Postnatal covariates: (measured at 3-year visit unless otherwise noted):
Child resides with biological mother (yes/no)	−0.088	−0.167, −0.010	0.027
Caregiver education level (years)	−0.072	−0.132, −0.012	0.019
Caregiver employment (yes/no)	−0.072	−0.133, −0.012	0.020
Number of caregiver changes (0–36 mos.)	−0.068	−0.132, −0.003	0.041
Past-year reported cocaine use	−0.074	−0.140, −0.007	0.030
Past-year reported marijuana use	−0.078	−0.143, −0.013	0.018
Past-year reported alcohol use	−0.078	−0.142, −0.013	0.019
Past-year reported cigarette use	−0.069	−0.133, −0.006	0.032
Day care placement (yes/no)	−0.075	−0.138, −0.012	0.020
IQ score	−0.041	−0.079, −0.004	0.032
Hearing	−0.070	−0.131, −0.008	0.026
Lead exposure level (ng/dL)	−0.074	−0.139, −0.009	0.025
HOME language stimulation score (4½ years)	−0.060	−0.120, −0.001	0.047
Head Start/Pre-kindergarten placement (5 years)	−0.068	−0.128, −0.008	0.027