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TLRs and epithelial defenses in the intestine and biliary tract. TLRs are expressed in the intestinal crypts and mediate expression of antimicrobial peptides to keep crypt lumen sterile (a) (modified from Sansonetti24). Cholangiocytes may defend the biliary lumen using a similar mechanism through TLR-mediated epithelial defense (b). TLRs, Toll-like receptors; hBDs, human β-defensins.
