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High-intensity of electrical stimulation of the dorsal roots, in an isolated spinal cord segment (a) evokes release of glutamate, substance P and BDNF in dorsal horn superfusates (b), and phosphorylation of ERK in the superficial dorsal horn (c). B= basal levels in superfusates, S= levels following electrical stimulation; R1 and R2= levels in recovery periods after stimulation. Modified from Lever et al., 2001, 2003.
