Figure 1. Deaths attributable to total effects of individual risk factors, by disease.

Data are shown for both sexes combined (upper graph); men (middle graph); and women (lower graph). See Table 8 for 95% CIs. Notes: We used RRs for blood pressure, LDL cholesterol, and FPG that were adjusted for regression dilution bias using studies that had repeated exposure measurement [7],[11],[12]; for blood pressure and LDL cholesterol, the adjusted magnitude is supported by effect sizes from randomized studies [13],[14]. Evidence from a large prospective study using multiple measurements of weight and height showed that regression dilution bias did not affect the RRs for BMI, possibly because there is less variability [15]. RRs for dietary salt and PUFA were from intervention studies, and hence unlikely to be affected by regression dilution bias. RRs for dietary trans fatty acids were primarily from studies that had used cumulative averaging of repeated measurements [16] that reduces but may not fully correct for regression dilution bias. RRs for physical inactivity, alcohol use, smoking, and dietary omega-3 fatty acids and fruits and vegetables were not corrected for regression dilution bias due to insufficient current information from epidemiological studies on exposure measurement error and variability, which is especially important when error and variability of self-reported exposure may themselves differ across studies. Regression dilution bias often, although not always, underestimates RRs in multivariate analysis [48]. ^aThe figures show deaths attributable to the total effects of each individual risk. There is overlap between the effects of risk factors because of multicausality and because the effects of some risk factors are partly mediated through other risks. Therefore, the number of deaths attributable to individual risks cannot be added. ^bThe effect of high dietary salt on cardiovascular diseases was estimated through its measured effects on systolic blood pressure. ^cThe protective effects of alcohol use on cardiovascular diseases are its net effects. Regular moderate alcohol use is protective for IHD, ischemic stroke, and diabetes, but any use is hazardous for hypertensive disease, hemorrhagic stroke, cardiac arrhythmias, and other cardiovascular diseases. NCD, noncommunicable diseases.