Table 2.
Selected ascomycetous fungi and their species-specific polyketide pigment and/or toxic metabolite profiles.
| Fungal species |
Pigment composition (colour). Toxic colored compounds in bold |
Major known mycotoxic uncolored metabolites | BioSafety Level (BSL) classification1 [32] | Comment2 | Ref. |
| Fusarium acuminatum | Antibiotic Y (yellow) Aurofusarin (red) |
Enniatins Moniliformin |
unknown | No | [24] |
| F. avenaceum | Antibiotic Y (yellow) Aurofusarin (red) |
Enniatins Moniliformin 2-amino-14,16-di-methyloctadecan-3-ol |
unknown | No | [24] |
| F. culmorum | Aurofusarin (red) Fuscofusarin (yellow) Rubrofusarin (red) |
Butenolide Fusarin C Trichothecenes Zearalenone |
unknown | No | [24] |
| F. fujikuroi | Bikaverin (red) Norbikaverin (red) O-demethylanhydrofusarubin (red) |
Fumonisins Fusaric acid Gibberellins Moniliformin |
1 | No | [25] |
| F. graminearum | Aurofusarin (red) Rubrofusarin (red) |
Butenolide Fusarin C Trichothecenes Zearalenone |
unknown | No | [24] |
| F. oxysporum | 2,7-dimehoxy-6-(acetoxyethyl)juglone (yellow) Bikaverin (red) Bostrycoidin (red) Nectriafurone (yellow) Norjavanicin (red) O-methyl-6-hydroxynorjavanicin (yellow) O-methylanhydrofusarubin (orange-red) O-methylfusarubin (red) O-methyljavanicin |
Fumonisins Fusaric acid Moniliformin |
2 | No | [25] |
| F. poae | Aurofusarin (red) | Enniatins Fusarin C Trichothecenes |
unknown | No | [24] |
| F. sambucinum | Aurofusarin (red) | Trichothecenes | unknown | No | [24] |
| F. solani | Fusarubin (red) Isomarticins (red) O-ethylfusarubin (red) O-methyldihydrofusarubin (red) |
2 | No | [25] | |
| F. sporotrichioides | Aurofusarin (red) Lycopene |
Enniatins Trichothecenes |
unknown | No | [24] |
| F. stilboides | Antibiotic Y (yellow) Aurofusarin (red) Nectriafurone (yellow) |
Enniatins | unknown | No | [un-published] |
| F. tricinctum | Antibiotic Y (yellow) Aurofusarin (red) |
Fusarin C Moniliformin |
unknown | No | [24] |
| F. venenatum | Aurofusarin (red) Rubrofusarin (red) |
Trichothecenes | unknown | No | [24] |
| F. verticillioides | Fusarubin O-demethylfusarubin O-methyljavanicin O-methylsolaniol (orange-red) |
Fumonisins Fusaric acid Moniliformin |
unknown | No | [25] |
| Alternaria dauci | Uncharacterized (red) | unknown | 1 | TBI | [26] |
| Alt. porri | Altersolanol A (yellow-orange) | unknown | 1 | TBI | [26] |
| Alt. solani | Altersolanol A (yellow-orange) | unknown | 1 | TBI | [26] |
| Alt. tomatophila | Altersolanol A (yellow-orange) | unknown | unknown | TBI | [26] |
| Cladosporium cladosporioides | Calphostins A, B, C, D, I (red) | unknown | 1 | TBI | [29] |
| Cordyceps unilateralis | 3,5 8-TMON* (red) 4-O-methyl erythrostominone (red) Deoxyerythrostominol (red) Deoxyerythrostominone (red) Epierythrostominol (red) Erythrostominone (red) |
unknown | unknown | TBI | [30] |
| Curvularia lunata | Chrysophanol (red) Cynodontin (bronze) Helminthosporin (maroon) |
unknown | 1 | TBI | [4] |
| Drechslera spp. | Catenarin (red) Cynodontin (bronze) Helminthosporin (maroon) Tritisporin (redish-brown) |
unknown | unknown | TBI | [4] |
| Epicoccum nigrum | Carotenoids Chromanone (yellow) Epicoccarines A & B Epicocconone (fluorescent yellow) Epipyridone (red) Flavipin (brown) Isobenzofuran derivatives (yellow to brown) Orevactaene (yellow) |
unknown | unknown | Yes | [5,27,28] |
| Paecilomyces sinclairii | Uncharacterized (red) | unknown | unknown | TBI | [31] |
| Polyketide pigment producer of Asia | |||||
| Monascus pilosus | Citrinin (yellow) | 1 | Banned in the EU & the US | [6] | |
| M. purpureus | Ankaflavin (yellow) Citrinin (yellow) Monascin Monascorubramine Monascorubrin Rubropunctamine (purple-red) Rubropunctatin (orange) |
Monascopyridine A & B | 1 | Banned in the EU & the US | [6] |
| M. ruber | Ankaflavin (yellow) Citrinin (yellow) Monascin Monascorubramine Monascorubrin Rubropunctamine (purple-red) Rubropunctatin (orange) |
1 | Banned in the EU & the US | [6] | |
1 BSL-1: saprobes or plant pathogens occupying non-vertebrate ecological niches, or commensals. Infections are coincidental, superficial, and non-invasive or mild. BSL-2: Species principally occupying non-vertebrate ecological niches, but with a relatively pronounced ability to survive in vertebrate tissue. In severely immuno-compromised patients they may cause deep opportunistic mycoses. Also pathogens causing superficial infections are in this category.
2 Keys to selection; Yes: preselected as a possible source of pigments, No: not selected as a possible source of pigments, TBI: to be investigated as a possible source of pigments.
The a priori major metabolite profiles and the BioSafety Level (BSL) classification of the fungal species are highlighted and form the basis for selection/de-selection of the species as a potential source of pigment production.