Table 1.
Variable name | Definition | Infants without Birth Defects (N=2325) | Infants with Birth Defects (N=2417) |
---|---|---|---|
Infant Health Outcomes | |||
Low birth weight | Indicator (0,1) for low birth weight (<2500 grams) | 0.061*** (0.239) | 0.226 (0.418) |
Preterm Birth | Indicator (0,1) for gestational age <37 weeks | 0.129*** (0.336) | 0.252 (0.434) |
Prenatal Care Measures | |||
Weeks | Pregnancy weeks elapsed prior to initiating prenatal care | 17.102 (9.188) | 17.054 (9.556) |
Other Health Inputs | |||
Multivitamin | Indicator (0,1) for multivitamin use during pregnancy | 0.054 (0.226) | 0.065 (0.246) |
Tetanus | Indicator (0,1) for tetanus immunization in 1st trimester | 0.053 (0.225) | 0.046 (0.208) |
Varicella | Indicator (0,1) for varicella immunization in 1st trimester | 0.092* (0.289) | 0.077 (0.266) |
Physical shocks | Indicator (0,1) for maternal exposure to physical factors in 1st trimester | 0.033*** (0.179) | 0.055 (0.228) |
Risk Indicators (also potential health determinants) | |||
Birth defect history | Indicator (0,1) for reporting any relatives of the child with the studied birth defects | 0.061*** (0.240) | 0.183 (0.387) |
Difficulty in conception | Indicator (0,1) for reporting any difficulty in conception | 0.086 (0.280) | 0.085 (0.279) |
Acute maternal illness | Indicator (0,1) for any acute illnesses during pregnancy | 0.364*** (0.481) | 0.406 (0.491) |
Chronic maternal illness | Indicator (0,1) for any chronic illnesses during pregnancy | 0.167*** (0.373) | 0.213 (0.409) |
First trimester bleeding | Indicator (0,1) for vaginal bleeding in 1st trimester | 0.063*** (0.243) | 0.108 (0.311) |
Live births | Number of previous live births | 1.994*** (2.067) | 2.448 (2.303) |
Miscarriages/stillbirths | Number of spontaneous previous abortions/stillbirths | 0.287*** (0.615) | 0.376 (0.764) |
Maternal age | Maternal age in years at delivery | 27.4*** (5.7) | 29.5 (6.8) |
Maternal age squared | Maternal age in years at delivery squared | 781.4*** (334.8) | 914.4 (423.6) |
Efficiency/Enabling Factors | |||
Maternal education-Less than primary╞ | Indicator (0,1) for below primary school education | 0.149 (0.356) | 0.165 (0.372) |
Maternal education-Incomplete secondary╞ | Indicator (0,1) for incomplete secondary school education | 0.249 (0.432) | 0.247 (0.432) |
Maternal education-Secondary╞ | Indicator (0,1) for completed secondary school education | 0.174* (0.379) | 0.153 (0.361) |
Maternal education-University╞ | Indicator (0,1) for attending university | 0.075 (0.263) | 0.065 (0.247) |
Maternal employment | Indicator (0,1) for maternal employment status | 0.205 (0.404) | 0.212 (0.409) |
Other Characteristics (some may affect both demand and infant health) | |||
Native ancestry | Indicator (0,1) for native ancestry | 0.864* (0.343) | 0.88 (0.325) |
European Latin ancestry | Indicator (0,1) for Latin European ancestry | 0.454 (0.498) | 0.456 (0.498) |
European non-Latin ancestry | Indicator (0,1) for non-Latin European ancestry | 0.078 (0.268) | 0.078 (0.268) |
Other ancestry | Indicator (0,1) for other ancestry | 0.041 (0.199) | 0.045 (0.207) |
Male | Indicator (0,1) for a male sampled subject | 0.505 (0.5) | 0.516 (0.5) |
Pregnancy year 95╪ | Indicator (0,1) for pregnancy in 1995 | 0.127 (0.333) | 0.123 (0.328) |
Pregnancy year 96╪ | Indicator (0,1) for pregnancy in 1996 | 0.096 (0.295) | 0.103 (0.304) |
Pregnancy year 97╪ | Indicator (0,1) for pregnancy in 1997 | 0.116 (0.320) | 0.11 (0.313) |
Pregnancy year 98╪ | Indicator (0,1) for pregnancy in 1998 | 0.129 (0.335) | 0.125 (0.331) |
Pregnancy year 99╪ | Indicator (0,1) for pregnancy in 1999 | 0.144 (0.351) | 0.143 (0.350) |
Pregnancy year 00╪ | Indicator (0,1) for pregnancy in 2000 | 0.121 (0.327) | 0.124 (0.329) |
Pregnancy year 01╪ | Indicator (0,1) for pregnancy in 2001 | 0.135 (0.342) | 0.142 (0.349) |
Pregnancy year 02╪ | Indicator (0,1) for pregnancy in 2002 | 0.035 (0.184) | 0.044 (0.205) |
Area Characteristics (province level) | |||
Clinics concentration (2003) | Number of public clinics and hospitals per 100 Km2 in 2003 | 5.333 (7.218) | 5.105 (7.080) |
Residents per hospital bed (1995) | Number of residents per public hospital bed in 1995 | 461.237 (93.239) | 465.593 (95.414) |
Unemployment (2002) | Unemployment rate in 2002 in urban areas of the province | 21.084 (4.205) | 19.561 (3.310) |
Female uninsured (2001) | % of females without public or private insurance in 2001 | 39.228* (9.825) | 39.701 (9.768) |
Unmet basic needs (2001) | % of population in 2001 with basic needs unmet | 14.169*** (5.461) | 14.708 (5.729) |
Note: Standard Deviations are listed in parentheses.
Omitted category is completed primary school
Omitted category is year 1994. The decrease of frequency of pregnancy occurrence in 2002 is due to the fact that the sample included cases born in 1995 through 2002.
*, ** and *** indicate significant differences in the distribution of the variables between the samples of infants with and without birth defects at p<0.1, <0.05 and <0.01 respectively.