Table 5.

Validation of preclinical rodent tasks for the Visual Learning and Memory Domain.

Validation	Visual Learning & Memory*	BVMT-R	NORT	Water Maze
Frontal cortex mediation	(Klingberg & Roland, 1998; Rossi et al., 2006) For review# see (Buckner & Wheeler, 2001; Ranganath et al., 2008; Simons & Spiers, 2003; Ungerleider, 1995)	NSF	No effect of mPFC lesion (Yee, 2000) but see (Kamei et al., 2006; Nagai et al., 2007) for effects of pharmacological manipulations of PFC.	mPFC lesions impair behavioral flexibility in the task (de Bruin et al., 1994; McDonald et al., 2008) and memory under partial-cue conditions (Jo et al., 2007)
Perirhinal cortex mediation	Danckert et al. 2007 Activated with contextually novel objects (Pihlajamaki et al. 2004)	NSF	Important for object novelty detection not for spatial novelty (Winters & Bussey 2005; Winters et al. 2004)	Delay-dependent effect on recall (Liu & Bilkey 1998a, 1998b); But see (Moses et al. 2005; Machin et al. 2002; Futter et al. 2006)
Role of Hippocampus	Activated with spatially novel objects (Pihlajamaki et al., 2004); Also see (Danckert et al., 2007; Pascalis et al., 2004) Reviewed in (Buckner & Wheeler, 2001; Ranganath et al., 2008; Simons & Spiers, 2003; Ungerleider, 1995)	In PD patients, correlation with left hippocampal volume (Bouchard et al., 2008)	Lesions impair (Ainge et al., 2006; Clark et al., 2000); No Effect (Forwood et al., 2005; Mumby et al., 2002; Winters et al., 2004); Discrepancies based on delay, size of lesion, sample phase, degree of spatial cues	(Ferbinteanu et al., 1999; Morris et al., 1982; Sutherland et al., 1983)
Age-related reduction in Performance	(Driscoll et al., 2003; Fahle & Daum, 1997; Gale et al., 2007; Grady et al., 1995)	(Gale et al., 2007)	(Scali et al., 1997; Vannucchi et al., 1997)	(Carrasco et al., 2006; Connor et al., 1992; Richter-Levin & Segal, 1996)
Sleep- Deprivation mediated deficit	(Walker & Stickgold, 2004); but see (Harrison & Horne, 2000)	NSF	Mice (Palchykova et al., 2006b); Djungarian hamsters (Palchykova et al., 2006a)	(Guan et al., 2004; Tartar et al., 2006)
Improved by amphetamine, caffeine and nicotine	Modafinil (Randall et al., 2005); (D. Turner et al., 2003), trend for improvement in schizophrenia (D. C. Turner et al., 2004); No effect of caffeine + taurine (Warburton et al., 2001)	Slight (non- significant) improvement with amphetamine (Benedict et al., 2008)	Nicotine (Puma et al., 1999) and caffeine (Costa et al., 2008a; Costa et al., 2008b) improve; Amphetamine improves and disrupts (Ventura et al., 2004)	Amphetamine improves (Brown et al., 2000); but high doses of amphetamine and caffeine impair learning (Kant, 1993)

PD: Parkinson’s disears; NORT: Novel object recognition task; BVMT-R: Brief Visuospatial Memory Task – Revised; NSF: No studies found; KO: Knockout; WT: Wildtype; MWM: Morris water maze; mPFC: medial prefrontal cortex; CANTAB: Cambridge neuropsychological test automated battery

^*General domain - based on a variety of neuropsychological tests (e.g., visuospatial recognition task; pattern recognition memory [in CANTAB]; non-verbal paired associates task, etc.) many of which are computer-based for use in neuroimaging studies.

^#See reviews for discussion of imaging vs. lesion data, influence of verbal rehearsal in the tasks, etc.