TABLE 1.

In vivo and in vitro studies showing chemopreventive/anticancer efficacy of GSE

Organ site	In vivo/in vitro model	Mechanism of action	Reference
Skin	DMBA initiated and TPA promoted skin carcinogenesis in SENCAR mouse	Antioxidant	23
	TPA promotion in CD1 mouse skin1	Inhibition of ornithine decarboxylase and myeloperoxidase activities	24,25
	UV-B induced skin carcinogenesis	Antioxidant, ↓MAPK,2 ↓NF-κB, ↓lipid peroxidation, Immunosuppression	26,27,28
Colorectal cancer	LoVo and HT-29 cells, HT-29 cells as tumor xenografts	↓Cell growth, ↑apoptosis, ↑p21 levels	29
	Azoxymethane-DMBA dual organ rat model	↓Aberrant crypt foci formation	30
	TNBS-induced ulcerative colitis rat model3	Antiinflammatory	31
	Human cancerous/noncancerous colon tissues	↓Adenosine deaminase activity ↓5′-nucleotidase activity	32
	Caco-2 cells	↓PI3Kinase, ↑apoptosis	33
	HT-29 cells	↓Proliferation, ↑apoptosis, ↓cholesterol uptake, ↓5-lipoxygenase activity	34
PCA	DU145 cells	↑Apoptosis	35
	DU145 cells	↓EGFR-Shc-ERK1/2-ELK1-AP1 pathway	36
	DU145 tumor xenografts, DU145 cells	↓VEGF,4 ↑IGFBP-35 in tumors ↑IGFBP3 in plasma ↑apoptosis, ↓NF-κB, ↓VEGF secretion	40, 41
	LNCaP cells	↑Apoptosis (anoikis)	44
	TRAMP model	Cell cycle arrest	46
Breast cancer	Aromatase transfected MCF-7 cells	↓Aromatase activity and expression	48,49
	MCF-7, MDA-MB468, MDA-MB231 cells	Synergistic effects with doxorubicin	50
	MCF-7 cells	Cytotoxic	51
	MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 cells	Antiangiogenic	53
	4T1 Breast cancer cells	Antimetastatic effects	54
Other cancers	A427 lung cancer cells, gastric adenocarcinoma CRL-1739 cells; A549 and H1299 lung cancer cells; Cal27 and SCC25 oral squamous cell carcinoma cells; Jurkat cells	Cytotoxic	51, 55–57

¹12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate.

²Mitogen-activated protein kinases.

³Trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid.

⁴Vascular endothelial growth factor.

⁵Insulin growth factor binding protein-3.