Table 1.

Sources, Receptors, Cell Targets and Functions of Representative Cytokines

Cytokine	Producing Cell / Serum Level	Receptor	Target	Function
GM-CSF	Th cells, macrophages, ECs, lymphocytes <8 pg/mL	GM-CSFRα GM-CSFRβ	Progenitor cells, hematopoietic stem cells, neutrophils, macrophages	Growth and differentiation of monocytes, dendritic cells, granulocytes, macrophages Pro-atherogenic
IFN-α	Leukocytes	IFNαR1 IFNαR2	Various	Viral replication, major histocompatibility complex (MHC I) expression
IFN-β	Fibroblasts	IFNβR	Various	Viral replication MHC I expression
IFN-γ	Macrophages Th1 cells Tc cells B cells Natural Killer (NK) cells VSMCs	IFNγR1 IFNγR2	Various Macrophages, lymphocytes, NK cells, EC, SMC	Viral replication Proinflammatory, promotes Th1 immune responses/secretion of Th1-associated cytokines, inhibits ECM synthesis by SMC
			Macrophages	MHC I expression Pathogen elimination
			Activated B cells	Ig class switch to IgG2a
			Th2 cells	Proliferation
			VSMCs	Migration, Proliferation
			ECM	Remodeling Pro-atherogenic
MIP-1α MIP-1β	Macrophages	IL-10R2	Monocytes T cells	Chemotaxis
TGF-β1 TGF-β2 TGF-β3	T cells Monocytes	TGF-βR1 TGF-βR2	Monocytes Macrophages	Chemotaxis IL-1 synthesis
			Activated B cells	IgA synthesis
			Various	Proliferation Anti-atherogenic
TNF-α	Macrophages Mast cells NK cells VSMCs T & B cells. <6 pg/mL	TNFR1 (p55) TNFR2 (p75)	Macrophages Various	Cytokine expression Proinflammatory, fever, neutrophil activation, bone resorption, anticoagulant
			Tumor cells	Cell death, tumor necrosis
			ECs	Activate, increase permeability, stimulate adhesion molecules, Pro-atherogenic
TNF-β	Th1 cells Tc cells Platelets, macrophages, Th3, Treg & B cells, SMC	type I and type II Ser/Thr kinase receptors	Phagocytes	Phagocytosis NO production, Pro-atherogenic
			ECs, VSMCs Various	Angigenesis, anti-inflammatory; profibrotic; promotes wound healing, suppresses Th1 & Th2 immune responses