Table 1.

Effects of smoking

Effect of smoking	Details
Immune cells	Exposure to cigarette smoke results in the depression of phagocytic and antibacterial functions of alveolar macrophages [6,7].
	Killing of intracellular bacteria in smokers' alveolar macrophages is impaired [8].
	Owing to smoke condensate, the primary immune response is diminished [9].
	Chronic smoking causes T-cell anergy [10,15].
	Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is involved in the suppression of antimicrobial activity [16].
	Nicotine decreases the induction of antigen-presenting cell-dependent T-cell responses in dendritic cells [10].
	Nicotine attenuates neutrophil functions such as superoxide production [10].
Cytokine production	Due to smoke exposure, lipopolysaccharide-induced TNF secretion of alveolar macrophages from experimental animals is decreased [11,12].
	Smokers' alveolar macrophages release less TNFα, IL-1 and IL-6 [13,14].
	Nicotine decreases the production of IL-12 in dendritic cells [10].
	Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is involved in the downregulation of IL-6, IL-12, and TNFα [16].
	Acetylcholine attenuates the release of TNF, IL-1 and IL-6 in lipopolysaccharide-induced human macrophage cultures [17].
	Hydroquinone causes suppression in the production of IL-1, IFNγ and TNFα in human macrophages [19].
	Hydroquinone inhibits IFNγ secretion in lymphocytes [20].
	Unsaturated aldehydes evoke the release of IL-8 and TNFα in human macrophages [21].
Oxidative stress	Smoke contains high amounts of free radicals.
	Smoke induces the depletion of intracellular glutathione, resulting in cell injury [23].
	Owing to smoking, redox-sensitive NF-κB and activator protein-1 are activated [22].
	Activator protein-1 is a cis-acting factor bound to the promoter of PAD4 [27].
	Agents, acting on cysteine sulfhydril groups, inactivate peptidyl arginine deiminase, while reduced compounds enhance its activity [28].
	Peptidyl arginine deiminase expression and activity are increased in the lungs of smokers [29].
Anti-estrogenic effect	Smoking has an anti-estrogenic effect through the formation of inactive estrogens [30].
Fibrinogen	Smokers have higher levels of serum fibrinogen [31].