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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2010 Oct 1.
Published in final edited form as: Exp Gerontol. 2009 Jul 19;44(10):625–633. doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2009.07.003

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Mechanisms involved in the generation of HNE from membrane lipids, and protein modification by HNE. HNE is generated primarily from linoleic and arachidonic acid in membranes as the result of free radical (hydroxyl radical and peroxynitrite) attack on the unsaturated bonds in these lipids. HNE can covalently modify proteins on lysine, histidine and cysteine residues in a process called Michael addition. Modification by HNE typically impairs the function of the proteins; examples of proteins known to be modified and functionally altered by HNE in the metabolic syndrome and associated diseases are listed (Mark et al., 1997a, 1997b; Keller et al., 1997; Blanc et al., 1997; Kelly et al., 1996; Perluigi et al., 2005).