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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2009 Oct 7.
Published in final edited form as: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008 Apr 25;49(12):5264–5273. doi: 10.1167/iovs.08-1814

TABLE 2.

Risk Indicators for Uncorrected Refractive Error and Unmet Refractive Need among LALES Participants (n = 6129)

A. Frequency Distribution and Univariate Associations

≥2 Lines Improvement (n = 926) Unmet Refractive Need: Definition 1 (n = 213) Unmet Refractive Need: Definition 2 (n = 218)



Risk Factor n (%) OR (95% CI) n (%) OR (95% CI) n (%) OR (95% CI)
Country of birth
  United States 198 (13.5) 1 49 (6.4) 1 46 (6.4) 1
  Other 728 (15.6) 1.19 (1.01–1.41) 164 (10.0) 1.64 (1.18–2.29) 172 (11.1) 1.83 (1.31–2.57)
Acculturation score
  >1.9 265 (13.0) 1 61 (6.1) 1 59 (6.2) 1
  ≤1.9 661 (16.2) 1.30 (1.11–1.51) 152 (10.9) 1.90 (1.39–2.59) 159 (12.1) 2.09 (1.53–2.86)
Marital status
  Married + live w/partner 629 (14.2) 1 121 (7.3) 1 127 (8.1) 1
  Never married 68 (18.1) 1.33 (1.01–1.76) 17 (11.7) 1.68 (0.98–2.87) 14 (10.7) 1.36 (0.76–2.44)
  Widowed 106 (18.9) 1.40 (1.12–1.76) 49 (15.9) 2.38 (1.67–3.40) 50 (17.3) 2.38 (1.67–3.40)
  Separated/divorced 123 (16.4) 1.19 (0.96–1.47) 26 (8.8) 1.22 (0.78–1.90) 27 (9.7) 1.23 (0.79–1.89)
Employment status
  Employed 357 (12.0) 1 59 (6.1) 1 62 (6.6) 1
  Retired 172 (18.6) 1.685 (1.38–2.06) 68 (11.7) 2.06 (1.43–2.97) 65 (11.9) 1.92 (1.33–2.77)
  Not working 394 (18.1) 1.604 (1.37–1.87) 86 (10.2) 1.77 (1.25–2.50) 91 (11.5) 1.85 (1.32–2.59)
Education (y)
  ≥12 251 (12.3) 1 41 (4.7) 1 40 (4.8) 1
  <12 674 (16.5) 1.41 (1.20–1.64) 171 (11.2) 2.57 (1.81–3.66) 178 (12.3) 2.77 (1.94–3.95)
Income level ($US)
  >40,000 83 (11.1) 1 9 (2.7) 1 10 (3.1) 1
  20,000–40,000 236 (12.8) 1.18 (0.90–1.54) 55 (7.9) 3.07 (1.50–6.28) 51 (7.7) 2.56 (1.28–5.12)
  <20,000 465 (16.8) 1.63 (1.27–2.09) 120 (11.2) 4.53 (2.27–9.02) 126 (12.5) 4.39 (2.28–8.48)
BMI
  Normal/underweight 129 (18.8) 1 44 (15.3) 1 47 (17.7) 1
  Overweight 313 (13.5) 0.67 (0.54–0.84) 70 (8.1) 0.49 (0.33–0.74) 66 (8.1) 0.41 (0.27–0.61)
  Obese 468 (15.4) 0.79 (0.64–0.98) 93 (7.6) 0.46 (0.31–0.67) 98 (8.4) 0.43 (0.29–0.63)
Smoking status
  Nonsmoker 571 (15.2) 1 126 (8.6) 1 127 (9.2) 1
  Ex-smoker 223 (14.9) 0.98 (0.83–1.16) 51 (8.1) 0.93 (0.66–1.31) 56 (9.5) 1.04 (0.75–1.45)
  Current smoker 130 (15.4) 1.105 (0.83–1.25) 35 (11.7) 1.398 (0.940–2.080) 35 (12.2) 1.38 (0.93–2.06)
Health insurance
  Yes 554 (14.0) 1 126 (7.1) 1 124 (7.4) 1
  No 372 (17.3) 1.28 (1.11–1.48) 87 (13.9) 2.11 (1.58–2.83) 94 (15.9) 2.38 (1.79–3.17)
Vision care insurance
  Yes 429 (13.9) 1 97 (6.8) 1 94 (7.0) 1
  No 490 (16.5) 1.23 (1.07–1.41) 114 (11.9) 1.84 (1.38–2.44) 121 (13.3) 2.05 (1.54–2.72)
Health visit in past 12 months
  Yes 740 (15.0) 1 176 (8.5) 1 182 (9.2) 1
  No 186 (15.9) 1.08 (0.90–1.28) 37 (11.5) 1.41 (0.97–2.05) 36 (11.8) 1.31 (0.90–1.9)
Eye exam in past 12 months
  Yes 140 (14.0) 1 35 (5.9) 1 38 (6.7) 1
  No 652 (15.3) 1.12 (0.92–1.36) 142 (9.3) 1.64 (1.12–2.40) 144 (10.1) 1.56 (1.08–2.26)

B. Age-Adjusted Univariate Associations

Odds Ratio (95% CI)

Factor ≥2 Lines Improvement Unmet Refractive Need Definition 1 Unmet Refractive Need Definition 2

Country of birth
  US 1 1 1
  Outside of US 1.27 (1.07–1.51) 1.89 (1.34–2.67) 2.09 (1.48–2.97)
Acculturation score
  >1.9 1 1 1
  ≤1.9 1.32 (1.13–1.54) 2.03 (1.48–2.78) 2.21 (1.61–3.04)
Marital status
  Married 1 1 1
  Never married 1.44 (1.09–1.90)* 1.76 (1.02–3.04) 1.42 (0.79–2.56)
  Widowed 1.10 (0.86–1.40) 1.83 (1.24–2.70) 1.82 (1.24–2.69)*
  Separated/divorced 1.17 (0.95–1.45) 1.22 (0.78–1.91) 1.21 (0.78–1.87)
Employment status
  Employed 1 1 1
  Retired 1.23 (0.95–1.59) 1.58 (0.96–2.59) 1.33 (0.81–2.18)
  Unemployed 1.45 (1.23–1.70) 1.64 (1.14–2.36)* 1.66 (1.16–2.38)*
Education (y)
  ≥12 1 1 1
  <12 1.30 (1.11–1.52) 2.46 (1.72–3.52) 2.63 (1.84–3.77)
Annual income level ($US)
  >40,000 1 1 1
  20,000–40,000 1.46 (1.13–1.87) 3.01 (1.47–6.20) 2.27 (1.35–3.82)
  <20,000 1.14 (0.87–1.49) 4.32 (2.14–8.70) 4.26 (2.18–8.31)
BMI
  Normal/underweight 1 1 1
  Overweight 0.68 (0.54–0.85) 0.54 (0.36–0.81) 0.44 (0.30–0.67)
  Obese 0.79 (0.64–0.98) 0.52 (0.35–0.78) 0.49 (0.33–0.72)
Smoking status
  Nonsmoker 1 1 1
  Ex-smoker 0.93 (0.78–1.10) 0.92 (0.66–1.31) 1.02 (0.73–1.42)
  Current smoker 1.06 (0.86–1.31) 1.50 (1.00–2.24) 1.47 (0.98–2.20)
Health insurance
  Yes 1 1 1
  No 1.39 (1.20–1.61) 2.74 (2.00–3.75) 3.03 (2.22–4.12)
Vision insurance
  Yes 1 1 1
  No 1.33 (1.15–1.54) 2.19 (1.63–2.96) 2.43 (1.81–3.28)
Health visit in past 12 months
  Yes 1 1 1
  No 1.18 (0.99–1.41) 1.54 (1.05–2.25)* 1.41 (0.96–2.07)
Eye exam in past 12 months
  No 1 1 1
  Yes 1.28 (1.05–1.57)* 1.78 (1.20–2.60) 1.70 (1.17–2.48)

Definitions 1 and 2 are as in Table 1. Significant associations are in bold.

*

P < 0.05.

P < 0.01.

P < 0.001.