TABLE 2.
Risk Indicators for Uncorrected Refractive Error and Unmet Refractive Need among LALES Participants (n = 6129)
| A. Frequency Distribution and Univariate Associations | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ≥2 Lines Improvement (n = 926) | Unmet Refractive Need: Definition 1 (n = 213) | Unmet Refractive Need: Definition 2 (n = 218) | ||||
| Risk Factor | n (%) | OR (95% CI) | n (%) | OR (95% CI) | n (%) | OR (95% CI) |
| Country of birth | ||||||
| United States | 198 (13.5) | 1 | 49 (6.4) | 1 | 46 (6.4) | 1 |
| Other | 728 (15.6) | 1.19 (1.01–1.41) | 164 (10.0) | 1.64 (1.18–2.29) | 172 (11.1) | 1.83 (1.31–2.57) |
| Acculturation score | ||||||
| >1.9 | 265 (13.0) | 1 | 61 (6.1) | 1 | 59 (6.2) | 1 |
| ≤1.9 | 661 (16.2) | 1.30 (1.11–1.51) | 152 (10.9) | 1.90 (1.39–2.59) | 159 (12.1) | 2.09 (1.53–2.86) |
| Marital status | ||||||
| Married + live w/partner | 629 (14.2) | 1 | 121 (7.3) | 1 | 127 (8.1) | 1 |
| Never married | 68 (18.1) | 1.33 (1.01–1.76) | 17 (11.7) | 1.68 (0.98–2.87) | 14 (10.7) | 1.36 (0.76–2.44) |
| Widowed | 106 (18.9) | 1.40 (1.12–1.76) | 49 (15.9) | 2.38 (1.67–3.40) | 50 (17.3) | 2.38 (1.67–3.40) |
| Separated/divorced | 123 (16.4) | 1.19 (0.96–1.47) | 26 (8.8) | 1.22 (0.78–1.90) | 27 (9.7) | 1.23 (0.79–1.89) |
| Employment status | ||||||
| Employed | 357 (12.0) | 1 | 59 (6.1) | 1 | 62 (6.6) | 1 |
| Retired | 172 (18.6) | 1.685 (1.38–2.06) | 68 (11.7) | 2.06 (1.43–2.97) | 65 (11.9) | 1.92 (1.33–2.77) |
| Not working | 394 (18.1) | 1.604 (1.37–1.87) | 86 (10.2) | 1.77 (1.25–2.50) | 91 (11.5) | 1.85 (1.32–2.59) |
| Education (y) | ||||||
| ≥12 | 251 (12.3) | 1 | 41 (4.7) | 1 | 40 (4.8) | 1 |
| <12 | 674 (16.5) | 1.41 (1.20–1.64) | 171 (11.2) | 2.57 (1.81–3.66) | 178 (12.3) | 2.77 (1.94–3.95) |
| Income level ($US) | ||||||
| >40,000 | 83 (11.1) | 1 | 9 (2.7) | 1 | 10 (3.1) | 1 |
| 20,000–40,000 | 236 (12.8) | 1.18 (0.90–1.54) | 55 (7.9) | 3.07 (1.50–6.28) | 51 (7.7) | 2.56 (1.28–5.12) |
| <20,000 | 465 (16.8) | 1.63 (1.27–2.09) | 120 (11.2) | 4.53 (2.27–9.02) | 126 (12.5) | 4.39 (2.28–8.48) |
| BMI | ||||||
| Normal/underweight | 129 (18.8) | 1 | 44 (15.3) | 1 | 47 (17.7) | 1 |
| Overweight | 313 (13.5) | 0.67 (0.54–0.84) | 70 (8.1) | 0.49 (0.33–0.74) | 66 (8.1) | 0.41 (0.27–0.61) |
| Obese | 468 (15.4) | 0.79 (0.64–0.98) | 93 (7.6) | 0.46 (0.31–0.67) | 98 (8.4) | 0.43 (0.29–0.63) |
| Smoking status | ||||||
| Nonsmoker | 571 (15.2) | 1 | 126 (8.6) | 1 | 127 (9.2) | 1 |
| Ex-smoker | 223 (14.9) | 0.98 (0.83–1.16) | 51 (8.1) | 0.93 (0.66–1.31) | 56 (9.5) | 1.04 (0.75–1.45) |
| Current smoker | 130 (15.4) | 1.105 (0.83–1.25) | 35 (11.7) | 1.398 (0.940–2.080) | 35 (12.2) | 1.38 (0.93–2.06) |
| Health insurance | ||||||
| Yes | 554 (14.0) | 1 | 126 (7.1) | 1 | 124 (7.4) | 1 |
| No | 372 (17.3) | 1.28 (1.11–1.48) | 87 (13.9) | 2.11 (1.58–2.83) | 94 (15.9) | 2.38 (1.79–3.17) |
| Vision care insurance | ||||||
| Yes | 429 (13.9) | 1 | 97 (6.8) | 1 | 94 (7.0) | 1 |
| No | 490 (16.5) | 1.23 (1.07–1.41) | 114 (11.9) | 1.84 (1.38–2.44) | 121 (13.3) | 2.05 (1.54–2.72) |
| Health visit in past 12 months | ||||||
| Yes | 740 (15.0) | 1 | 176 (8.5) | 1 | 182 (9.2) | 1 |
| No | 186 (15.9) | 1.08 (0.90–1.28) | 37 (11.5) | 1.41 (0.97–2.05) | 36 (11.8) | 1.31 (0.90–1.9) |
| Eye exam in past 12 months | ||||||
| Yes | 140 (14.0) | 1 | 35 (5.9) | 1 | 38 (6.7) | 1 |
| No | 652 (15.3) | 1.12 (0.92–1.36) | 142 (9.3) | 1.64 (1.12–2.40) | 144 (10.1) | 1.56 (1.08–2.26) |
| B. Age-Adjusted Univariate Associations | ||||||
| Odds Ratio (95% CI) | ||||||
| Factor | ≥2 Lines Improvement | Unmet Refractive Need Definition 1 | Unmet Refractive Need Definition 2 | |||
| Country of birth | ||||||
| US | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Outside of US | 1.27 (1.07–1.51)† | 1.89 (1.34–2.67)‡ | 2.09 (1.48–2.97)‡ | |||
| Acculturation score | ||||||
| >1.9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| ≤1.9 | 1.32 (1.13–1.54)‡ | 2.03 (1.48–2.78)‡ | 2.21 (1.61–3.04)‡ | |||
| Marital status | ||||||
| Married | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Never married | 1.44 (1.09–1.90)* | 1.76 (1.02–3.04)† | 1.42 (0.79–2.56) | |||
| Widowed | 1.10 (0.86–1.40) | 1.83 (1.24–2.70)† | 1.82 (1.24–2.69)* | |||
| Separated/divorced | 1.17 (0.95–1.45) | 1.22 (0.78–1.91) | 1.21 (0.78–1.87) | |||
| Employment status | ||||||
| Employed | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Retired | 1.23 (0.95–1.59) | 1.58 (0.96–2.59) | 1.33 (0.81–2.18) | |||
| Unemployed | 1.45 (1.23–1.70)‡ | 1.64 (1.14–2.36)* | 1.66 (1.16–2.38)* | |||
| Education (y) | ||||||
| ≥12 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| <12 | 1.30 (1.11–1.52)† | 2.46 (1.72–3.52)‡ | 2.63 (1.84–3.77)‡ | |||
| Annual income level ($US) | ||||||
| >40,000 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| 20,000–40,000 | 1.46 (1.13–1.87)† | 3.01 (1.47–6.20)‡ | 2.27 (1.35–3.82)‡ | |||
| <20,000 | 1.14 (0.87–1.49) | 4.32 (2.14–8.70)‡ | 4.26 (2.18–8.31)‡ | |||
| BMI | ||||||
| Normal/underweight | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Overweight | 0.68 (0.54–0.85)† | 0.54 (0.36–0.81)† | 0.44 (0.30–0.67)‡ | |||
| Obese | 0.79 (0.64–0.98)† | 0.52 (0.35–0.78)† | 0.49 (0.33–0.72)‡ | |||
| Smoking status | ||||||
| Nonsmoker | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Ex-smoker | 0.93 (0.78–1.10) | 0.92 (0.66–1.31) | 1.02 (0.73–1.42) | |||
| Current smoker | 1.06 (0.86–1.31) | 1.50 (1.00–2.24) | 1.47 (0.98–2.20) | |||
| Health insurance | ||||||
| Yes | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| No | 1.39 (1.20–1.61)‡ | 2.74 (2.00–3.75)‡ | 3.03 (2.22–4.12)‡ | |||
| Vision insurance | ||||||
| Yes | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| No | 1.33 (1.15–1.54)‡ | 2.19 (1.63–2.96)‡ | 2.43 (1.81–3.28)‡ | |||
| Health visit in past 12 months | ||||||
| Yes | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| No | 1.18 (0.99–1.41) | 1.54 (1.05–2.25)* | 1.41 (0.96–2.07) | |||
| Eye exam in past 12 months | ||||||
| No | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Yes | 1.28 (1.05–1.57)* | 1.78 (1.20–2.60)† | 1.70 (1.17–2.48)† | |||
Definitions 1 and 2 are as in Table 1. Significant associations are in bold.
*
P < 0.05.
†
P < 0.01.
‡
P < 0.001.