Fig. 14.

A synoptic geography of early agricultural developments and precursors in Africa. Shown are the modern distributions of wild Sorghum bicolor and Pennisetum glaucum with genetic connections to the domesticates (after Harlan, 1971; Tostian, 1992). The previously wetter conditions imply a northward shift in the Sahara–Sahel transition (see Gasse, 2000; Marshall and Hildebrand, 2002). Early Holocene ceramic-using forager sites based on Jesse (2003), and mid-Holocene pastoral sites based on Jousse (2004). Early evidence for wild sorghum gathering is indicated (based on Stemler, 1990; Barakat and Fahmy, 1999; Wasylikowa and Dahlberg, 1999). The spread of Near Eastern crops is indicated in the Nile Valley vis-à-vis the pre-ceramic Neolithic distribution in the Eastern Mediterranean. Sites with early pearl millet are numbered: 1, Dhar Tichitt sites (cited in D'Andrea and Casey, 2002); 2, Dhar Oualata sites (Amblard and Pernes, 1989); 3, Djiganyai (MacDonald et al., 2003); 4, Winde Koroji (MacDonald, 1996); 5, Karkarichinkat (cited in D'Andrea and Casey, 2002); 6, Ti-n-Akof (cited in D'Andrea and Casey, 2002); 7, Oursi (cited in D'Andrea and Casey, 2002); 8, Birimi (D'Andrea et al., 2001); 9, Ganjigana (Klee et al., 2004); 10, Kursakata (Zach and Klee, 2003). Historical sites with pearl millet metrical data: 11, Arondo (cited in Zach and Klee, 2003); 12, Jarma (Pelling, 2005); 13, Qasr Ibrim (Steele and Bunting, 1982).