TABLE 3.
Percentage body fat measured by using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and anthropometric and metabolic measures in children of women with normal glucose tolerance (NGT) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) at follow-up1
| NGT (n = 38) | GDM (n = 25) | P value2 | |
| Body fat (%) | 27.8 ± 8.13 | 31.0 ± 9.3 | 0.14 |
| Age (y) | 9.6 ± 1.5 | 9.3 ± 1.8 | 0.50 |
| Male/female sex (n) | 16/22 | 10/15 | 0.87 |
| Race (n) | 0.14 | ||
| White | 37 | 21 | |
| African American | 0 | 1 | |
| Hispanic | 1 | 3 | |
| Asian | 0 | 0 | |
| Height (cm) | 138.9 ± 10.8 | 135.9 ± 13.1 | 0.33 |
| BMI z score | 0.25 ± 0.10 | 0.98 ± 1.22 | 0.02 |
| Fat mass (kg) | 10.0 ± 5.0 | 12.3 ± 6.6 | 0.12 |
| Lean body mass (kg) | 24.5 ± 4.9 | 25.0 ± 6.7 | 0.72 |
| Activity (h)4 | 291 ± 196 | 266 ± 286 | 0.74 |
| Inactivity (h)5 | 556 ± 208 | 696 ± 418 | 0.15 |
| Total energy (kcal) | 1936 ± 515 | 1904 ± 704 | 0.84 |
| Protein intake (g) | 66 ± 21 | 63 ± 24 | 0.60 |
| Carbohydrate intake (g) | 252 ± 57 | 260 ± 84 | 0.66 |
| Fat intake (g) | 76 ± 29 | 70 ± 35 | 0.51 |
| Waist circumference (mm) | 61.6 ± 9.0 | 65.3 ± 10.2 | 0.14 |
| Thigh circumference (mm) | 44.0 ± 7.1 | 47.0 ± 8.0 | 0.12 |
| Waist:thigh ratio | 1.43 ± 0.30 | 1.40 ± 0.12 | 0.65 |
| Sum of 7 skinfold thicknesses (mm) | 77.8 ± 32.3 | 93.2 ± 43.7 | 0.13 |
| Skinfold thickness ratio | 0.843 ± 0.289 | 1.009 ± 0.397 | 0.07 |
| Systolic BP (mm Hg) | 108 ± 9 | 112 ± 11 | 0.13 |
| Diastolic BP (mm Hg) | 60 ± 8 | 59 ± 7 | 0.50 |
| Fasting glucose (mmol/L)6 | 4.8 ± 0.2 | 4.9 ± 0.3 | 0.33 |
| Fasting insulin (pmol/L)7 | 50 ± 24 | 78 ± 43 | 0.02 |
| HOMA-IR7 | 1.81 ± 0.86 | 2.86 ± 1.64 | 0.02 |
| Fasting FFA (g/L)8 | 0.202 ± 0.045 | 0.235 ± 0.085 | 0.13 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/L)6 | 4.17 ± 0.62 | 3.86 ± 0.52 | 0.09 |
| Triglyceride (mmol/L)6 | 0.80 ± 0.35 | 0.86 ± 0.70 | 0.76 |
| HDL cholesterol (mmol/L)6 | 1.21 ± 0.25 | 1.20 ± 0.26 | 0.88 |
| LDL cholesterol (mmol/L)9 | 2.69 ± 0.49 | 2.38 ± 0.57 | 0.08 |
| Leptin (ng/mL)6 | 6.7 ± 5.8 | 9.8 ± 8.1 | 0.16 |
| TNF-α (pg/mL)6 | 6.9 ± 8.0 | 7.9 ± 7.9 | 0.72 |
1
BP, blood pressure; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; HOMA-IR, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; FFA, free fatty acid.
2
Data were analyzed by using Student's t, Mann-Whitney U, and chi-square tests.
3
Mean ± SD (all such values).
4–9
For combined NGT and GDM groups: 4n = 45, 5n = 44, 6n = 39, 7n = 37, 8n = 9, 9n = 39.