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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2009 Oct 19.
Published in final edited form as: Autoimmun Rev. 2008 Jan 8;7(4):313–316. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2007.11.027

Figure.

Figure

Combined stimulation through the TLR and an autoreactive BCR leads to activation of B cells in multiple ways. Autoreactive B cells can then proliferate, or up-regulate co-stimulatory molecules turning them into more efficient APCs. They also secrete cytokines and can differentiate into plasma cells that produce large amounts of immunoglobulins (Ig). In addition, expression of activation induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is directly induced by TLR signals. This results in class switching to higher affinity immunoglobulins, and -if autoreactivity is retained-, increasingly pathogenic antibodies are generated.