Table 2.
Interspecific comparisons of head, neck and trunk pitch (deg.) and head vertical (cm) displacements relative to space
| Quadrupedal |
Bipedal |
||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Displacement | Gait | Segment | Horsea | Langurb* | Bonnetbe | Rhesuscf | Cynomolguscf | Japanesedg | Vervetch | Humandi | Humandj | Gibbondg | Japanesedg |
| Pitch rotation | Walk | Head | 9(±4) | 17(±5) | 13(±4) | 5(±2) | 6–16k | <5 | 15(±7) | 8(±2) | 9(±3) | <5 | <5 |
| Neck | 10(±3) | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14(±4) | – | – | – | ||
| Trunk | 6(±2) | 10(±3) | 13(±3) | 7(±2) | <10 | – | 6(±2) | 4(±1) | – | – | – | ||
| Trot=Bipedal run | Head | 5(±2) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14(±4) | – | – | |
| Canter=Slow gallop | Head | 10(±4) | 15(±2) | 13(±3) | – | – | – | 14(±7) | – | – | – | – | |
| Trunk | 8(+1) | 42(+4) | 30(+8) | – | – | – | 25(±7) | – | – | – | – | ||
| Vertical translation | Walk | Head | 12(±4) | 7(±2) | 7(±2) | 1(±1) | <1–4k | <2 | – | – | 5–9l | ~2 | <2 |
| Trunk | 10(±2) | – | – | 2(±0.4) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||
| Trot=Bipedal run | Head | 9(±2) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7–16l | – | – | |
| Canter=Slow gallop | Head | 23(±5) | 19(±4) | 11 (±5) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | |
Overground arena locomotion.
Overground natural terrain locomotion.
Treadmill locomotion.
Overground laboratory flat surface locomotion.
Hanuman, common or gray langur (Semnopithecus entellus); Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata); (Dunbar et al., 2004).
Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta); Cynomolgus, long-tailed or crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis); (Xiang et al., 2008).
Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata); Lar, white-handed or common gibbon (Hylobates lar); (Hirasaki and Kumakura, 2004).
Vervet, grivet, savanna, or African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops); (Dunbar, 2004).
Lowest mean to highest mean values across Cynomolgus individuals.
Data presented as range values.