Table 1.

Effector mechanisms in immune restoration disease

Pathogen	Immunopathology	Effector cells and cytokines	References
Bacteria
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB)	Lymphadenopathy, pulmonary manifestations, systemic inflammatory responses etc.	CD4 T cells, macrophages?, Tregs?, LPS?	[11,15–19,20•]
Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC)	Lymphadenitis, pulmonary granulomatous responses	CD4 T cells?	[21,22]
Mycobacterium leprae	Borderline disease and type 1 reactions	CD4 T cells?	[23]
Other mycobacteria	Lymphadenopathy, pulmonary manifestations,	CD4 T cells?	[24]
Viruses
Herpes simplex virus (HSV)	Dermatological manifestations	CD8 T cells, IL-6	[25,26]
Varicella zoster virus (VZV)	Dermatological manifestations	CD8 & CD4 T cells	[27,28]
Human herpes virus 8 (HHV-8)	Kaposi sarcoma flare	CD8 T cells?, IFN-γ, TNF-α	[29–32]
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)	CMV retinitis, immune recovery uveitis	CD8 T cells, NK cells, CD4 cells (IFN-γ), IL-6 (macrophages), IL-12, Treg deficiency?	[14,33–37]
Hepatitis B virus (HBV)	Inflammatory flares and elevated liver enzymes	CD8 T cells, Tregs?	[2,38]
Hepatitis C virus (HCV)	Inflammatory flares and elevated liver enzymes	T cells, cytokines, Tregs?	[38,39]
JC virus (JCV)	Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML)	CD8 T cells	[40–43]
Fungi
Cryptococcus neoformans	Central nervous system cryptococcosis	CD4 T cells, IFN-γ, macrophages	[44–46]
Pneumocystis carinii	Pneumonia	CD8 T cells, CD4 T (Th2), IL-4, IL-5, IL-6	[47,48]
Parasites
Leishmania spp.	Visceral, cutaneous and mucosal leishmaniasis, post kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis	CD4 T cells and IFN-γ?, macrophages?	[49]
Schistosoma mansoni	Colitis and polyposis, granuloma formation around eggs	CD4 T cells?	[50,51]

IL, interleukin; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; NK, natural killer; Th2, T helper type 2; TNF, tumour necrosis factor; Tregs, regulatory T cells.