TABLE 2.

Some newer tools and strategies for vaccine development in the 21st century

Vaccine tool(s) or strategy
Reverse genetics and temperature-sensitive mutations
Reassortment
Viral recombinants and deletion mutants
Codon deoptimization
Increased replication fidelity
Replicating vectors recombined with genes from pathogens
Replication-defective VLPs
DNA plasmids
Reverse vaccinology
Prime-boost
Fusion proteins
Immune refocusing
Gene delivery by invasive bacteria
Transcriptomics
Proteomics
DNA shuffling
Killed but metabolically active Listeria bacteria for
dendritic cell targeting
Transcutaneous vaccination
Adjuvants, including cytokines
Nanoparticles
Therapeutic vaccines
Vaccines for noninfectious diseases