FIGURE 5.

Evidence-based examples of regulation of mitochondrial ATP synthesis by charge regulators (DIF-1 and O₂) that can limit the amount of fuel-energy conversion to mitochondrial inner membrane potential (Δψ_m), or via amplitude modulation of coupling to ATP synthesis by hormetic morphogens (TGF-β and auxin), or by uncoupling of Δψ_m energy, either via opening of membrane pores by apoptotic concentrations of TGF-β or by TGF-β-induced increases in uncoupling protein (UCP) via cyclooxygenase induction (not shown). TGF-β can modulate ATP synthesis by regulating the expression of adenine nucleotide transporters (ANT1 and ANT2). Auxin (IAA) can modulate ADP phosphorylation (For a more complete analysis see Fosslien 2008).