Table 2. Studies of HIV reverse transcriptase and protease drug resistance in nonsubtype B-infected treatment-naive patients.
| Country | Sample years | Patients (genotypes) | Reported TDR (%; specific mutations) per drug class* | Ref. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NRTI | NNRTI | PI | ||||||||||
| Africa | ||||||||||||
| Africa | 1995–1999 | 142 (129) | None | 3.9 (V108I, Y181C) | 1.6 (L33F, M46I) | [151] | ||||||
| Africa | 1996–2003 | 35 (33) | None | 12.1 (V108I) | 9.1 (M46I) | [152] | ||||||
| Botswana | 2001 | 71 (71) | None | None | None | [153] | ||||||
| Burkina Faso | 2006‡ | 39 (17) | None | None | None | [154] | ||||||
| Burkina Faso | 2003–2004 | 43 (38) | None | 5.3 (K103N) | 7.9 (N88D) | [155] | ||||||
| Burkino Faso | 2001–2003 | 97 (97) | None | 4.1 (106A, V108I) | 4.1 (L33F, M46I/L) | [156] | ||||||
| Burundi | 2000 | 18 (18) | None | None | None | [73] | ||||||
| Burundi | 2002 | 119 (119) | None | 0.8 (G190E) | None | [157] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 1998 | 110 (109) | Not reported | Not reported | 0.9 (L24I) | [119] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 2004 | 54 (54) | 3.7 (V75I, M184V) | 3.7 (Y188C, L100I) | 7.4 (M46I/L, V82A) | [158] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 2000–2002 | 128 (128) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [126] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 2007‡ | 40 (24§) | 8.3§ (D67E, M184V) | 4.2§ (Y188H) | 8.3§ (L33F, M46I) | [159] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 2004 | 79 (78) | 3.8 (T215Y/F) | 9.0 (L100I, V108I, Y181C, L 210W) | 2.6 (M46L) | [160] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 1999 | 75 (70§) | Not reported | Not reported | 4.3§ (L33F, G73S) | [161] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 1999 | 47 (19) | None | None | 5.3 (V108I) | [162] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 2001–2003 | 102 (102) | 2.0 (A62V, M184V) | 1.0 (V108I) | 2.9 (L33F, M46I/L) | [156] | ||||||
| Cameroon | 2001–2004 | 110 (96) | 1.0 (L210W) | None | 1.0 (N88S) | [163] | ||||||
| CAR | 2005 | 150 (114) | None | None | None | [164] | ||||||
| CAR | 2002 | 38 (12) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [165] | ||||||
| Cote d'Ivoire | 2003‡ | 20 (20) | None | None | None | [113] | ||||||
| Cote d'Ivoire | 1997–2000 | 99 (99) | None | None | None | [129] | ||||||
| Cote d'Ivoire | 2001–2002 | 107 (107) | 0.9 (K219Q) | 3.1 (K101E, K103N) | 2.0 (F53Y, N88D) | [166] | ||||||
| DRC | 2002 | 70 (70) | None | 1.4 (K103N) | 2.9 (L90M, M46L) | [167] | ||||||
| Ethiopia | 2003 | 92 (92) | 1.1 (V75I) | 2.2 (G190A) | None | [124] | ||||||
| Ethiopia, Botswana | 1994–1995 | 14 (14) | Not reported | Not reported | None | [168] | ||||||
| Gabon | 2007 | 25 (22) | None | None | None | [169] | ||||||
| Gabon | 1996–1999 | 41 (31) | 6.5% (K219Q) | None | None | [127] | ||||||
| Gabon | 2000 | 35 (13) | None | None | None | [170] | ||||||
| Ghana | 2001–2002 | 39 (39) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [125] | ||||||
| Ghana | 2003 | 25 (25) | None | None | None | [171] | ||||||
| Kenya | 1999–2000 | 41 (41§) | 7.3§ (M184I) | None§ | 4.9§ (M46L, G73S) | [172] | ||||||
| Kenya | 1995 | 460 (38§) | None§ | 2.6§ (G190A) | 2.6§ (L33F) | [173] | ||||||
| Madagascar | 2005 | 28 (23) | None | None | 4.3 (M46I, I84V, L90M) | [174] | ||||||
| Malawi | 1996–2001 | 21 (21) | None | None | None | [175] | ||||||
| Mali | 2006 | 198 (193) | 1.5% (V75I, K219Q) | 9.0 (V108I, Y181C) | 1.0 (L33F, M46L) | [176,177] | ||||||
| Mozambique | 2008‡ | 75 (75) | None | None | None | [112] | ||||||
| Mozambique | 2003 | 59 (58) | None | None | 1.7 (I50L) | [115] | ||||||
| Mozambique | 1999–2004 | 81 (81) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [178] | ||||||
| Nigeria | 2006‡ | 18 (18) | None | None | None | [114] | ||||||
| Nigeria | 2005 | 50 (43) | 8.6 (M41L) | 2.9 (Y188H) | None | [179] | ||||||
| Rwanda | 2000 | 43 (43) | None | None | 2.3 (L33F) | [180] | ||||||
| Senegal | 1998–2001 | 80 (32§) | None | None | None | [181] | ||||||
| Seychelles | 2005–2006 | 40 (31) | None | None | None | [182] | ||||||
| South Africa | 2003 | 14 (14) | None | 21.0 (K103N, V106M) | Not studied | [72] | ||||||
| South Africa | 2001 | 42 (13) | None | None | None | [69] | ||||||
| South Africa | 2001–2004 | 53 (40) | None | None | 5.0 (M46L, G73S) | [116] | ||||||
| South Africa | 2001–2002 | 72 (61) | None | 3.3 (K103N, G190A) | None | [70] | ||||||
| South Africa | 2000 | 37 (37) | None | None | Not studied | [71] | ||||||
| Swaziland | 2002–2003 | 47 (47) | None | 2.0 (Y181I) | None | [117] | ||||||
| Swaziland | 2006 | 70 (60) | None | None | 3.3 (M46I, I47V) | [183] | ||||||
| Tanzania | 2001 | 36 (20§) | None§ | None§ | None§ | [184] | ||||||
| Tanzania | 2002–2003 | 507 (14§) | 7.1§ (M184I) | 7.1§ (Y188H) | 7.1§ (D30N) | [185] | ||||||
| Tanzania | 2005 | 246 (100§) | 1.0§ (T69D) | 1.0§ (P225H) | 3.0 (L23I, L33F) | [186] | ||||||
| Tanzania | 2005–2006 | 60 (39) | None | None | None | [187] | ||||||
| Uganda | 1993–1994 | 27 (27) | None | None | 3.7 (L33F) | [188] | ||||||
| Uganda | 2007‡ | 279 (254) | 0.8 (M41L) | None | None | [189] | ||||||
| Uganda | 1990 | 187 (187) | None | None | None | [190] | ||||||
| Uganda | 2006–2007 | 46 (46) | None | None | None | [191] | ||||||
| Zambia | 2000 | 28 (28) | None | None | None | [122] | ||||||
| Zimbabwe | 1995 | 12 (12) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [192] | ||||||
| Asia | ||||||||||||
| Azerbaijan | 1999–2002 | 125 (37) | 18.9§ (A62V) | None§ | None§ | [193] | ||||||
| Cambodia | 2003–2004 | 146 (142) | 2.8 (K70R, V75M) | None | 2.8 (L33F, M46I, N88D) | [81] | ||||||
| China | 2005–2006 | 13 (10§) | 10.0§ (M184I) | 20.0§ (Y188L) | 20.0§ (M46I, F53L) | [194] | ||||||
| China | 2000 | 126 (84) | None | None | 1.2 (V82A) | [195] | ||||||
| China | 2003‡ | 66 (52) | None | None | None | [196] | ||||||
| China | 1999–2004 | 91 (38) | 5.3 (M41L, M184I) | None | 5.3 (M46I) | [76] | ||||||
| China | 2003–2004 | 25 (25) | None | None | None | [77] | ||||||
| China | 1999–2001 | 40 (16) | Not reported | Not reported | 6.3 (M46I) | [78] | ||||||
| China | 2005 | 95 (54) | 3.7 (A62V, D67G) | None | 1.9 (M46I) | [79] | ||||||
| Georgia | 1998–2003 | 48 (36) | 2.8 (M184V/I) | None | None | [97] | ||||||
| India | 2003 | 128 (128) | 1.6 (M184V) | None | 0.8 (M46I) | [88] | ||||||
| India | 1999–2001 | 12 (12) | None | None | None | [89] | ||||||
| India | 2004–2005 | 75 (25) | None | None | None | [92] | ||||||
| India | 2007‡ | 48 (48) | None | None | None | [94] | ||||||
| India | 2005‡ | 50 (50) | 2.0 (D67E) | 2.0 (K103N) | 2.0 (M46I) | [95] | ||||||
| India, North | 2008‡ | 52 (52) | None | None | 2.0 (M46I) | [87] | ||||||
| India, South | 2004–2005 | 38 (38) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [90] | ||||||
| India, Western | 2007 | 40 (40) | 7.5 (M41L, D67N, M184V, K219R) | None | 2.5 (V82A) | [91] | ||||||
| Iran | 2009‡ | 13 (13§) | None§ | None§ | None§ | [93] | ||||||
| Israel | 1999–2003 | 176 (147) | 1.4 (M41L, T215Y) | 4.1 (K103N, V106M, V108I, G190A) | 4.8 (M46I, N88D, L90M) | [197] | ||||||
| Japan | 2003–2004 | 575 (97) | None | None | 1.0 (L33F) | [120] | ||||||
| Kazakhstan | 2001–2003 | 85 (85) | 56.5 (A62V) | None | None | [198] | ||||||
| Malaysia | 2003–2004 | 100 (88) | None | 1.0 (Y181C) | 3.4 (L33F) | [83,199] | ||||||
| Moldova | 1997–1998 | 83 (82) | None | None | None | [96] | ||||||
| Singapore | 2002–2003 | 104 (35) | None | None | 2.9 (L33F) | [80] | ||||||
| Soviet Union | 1995–2003 | 119 (119) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [200] | ||||||
| Soviet Union | 1997–2004 | 278 (268) | 8.2 (A62V, V75I, M184V, T215F, K219N/R) | 1.1 (Y188C) | 2.6 (M46I) | [99] | ||||||
| Taiwan | 1999–2006 | 786 (167) | 7.8 total | [86] | ||||||||
| Thailand | 2008‡ | 113 (92) | 6.5 (M41L, T215Y) | None | None | [128] | ||||||
| Thailand | 2006–2007 | 11 (7) | None | None | None | [84] | ||||||
| Thailand | 2000–2001 | 21 (20) | None | None | None | [85] | ||||||
| Thailand | 1999–2002 | 39 (38§) | 13.2§ (V75M, M184I) | None§ | 5.3§ (D30N, M46I, G73S) | [74] | ||||||
| Thailand | 1998–2001 | 168 (25§) | 16.0§ (M184I) | None§ | 24.0§ (D30N, M46I, G73S, I84V) | [75] | ||||||
| Ukraine | 2001–2002 | 163 (114) | 4.4§ (A62V, M184I) | 0.9§ (Y181I) | 0.9§ (M46I) | [201] | ||||||
| Uzbekistan | 2002–2003 | 142 (140) | 65.6 (A62V) | None | None | [202] | ||||||
| Vietnam | 2007 | 301 (291) | 0.7 (M184I, K219E) | 1.8 (K103N, G190E) | 0.3 (M46I) | [82] | ||||||
| Vietnam | 1998–2000 | 25 (23) | None | None | None | [203] | ||||||
| Vietnam | 2001–2002 | 200 (199) | 6.0 (M41L, M184I, K219Q/N) | None | 3.0 (D30N, L33F, M46I, L90M) | [204] | ||||||
| Yemen | 2000–2002 | 19 (10) | None | None | None | [205] | ||||||
| Europe | ||||||||||||
| Albania | 1994–2003 | 72 (43) | 2.3 (M41L, D67N, T69D, T215D) | None | None | [206] | ||||||
| Belgium | 1983–2001 | 281 (41§) | 2.4§ (L74V) | None§ | None§ | [67] | ||||||
| Belgium | 2003–2006 | 285 (117) | 2.6 (M184V, K219E) | 2.6 (K103N, G190A, Y181C) | 1.7 (L90M) | [111] | ||||||
| Cyprus | 2003–2006 | 37 (24) | 4.2 (M184V) | None | None | [110] | ||||||
| Denmark | 2000 | 104 (40) | None | None | None | [109] | ||||||
| Europe | 1996–2002 | 2208 (673) | 4.8 Total | [12] | ||||||||
| France | 1999–2001 | 72 (72) | 4.2 (D67N, K70R, M184I) | 1.4 (K103N) | 1.4 (L33F) | [118] | ||||||
| Germany | 2001–2003 | 346 (76) | 1.4 total (nonsubtype B-specific mutations were not reported) | [59] | ||||||||
| Greece | 2002–2003 | 101 (53) | 1.9 (A62V) | 3.8 (V108I, Y181C) | None | [207] | ||||||
| Italy | 2004–06 | 111 (13) | None | None | None | [121] | ||||||
| Portugal | 2003 | 180 (105) | 5.7% (M41L, M184V, K219Q, T215C) | 2.9 (K103N, V108I, G190A) | 1.0 (L90M) | [208] | ||||||
| Portugal | 1998–2000 | 52 (52) | Not studied | Not studied | 11.5§ (V32I, D30N, I47V, F53L, N88S) | [209] | ||||||
| Romania | 2007 | 29 (29) | None | None | None | [107] | ||||||
| Slovenia | 2000–2004 | 77 (14) | None | None | None | [210] | ||||||
| Spain | 1986–2000 | 141 (71) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [211] | ||||||
| Spain | 2000–2002 | 85 (19) | None | None | 5.3 (M46I) | [212] | ||||||
| Sweden | 1998–2001 | 100 (45) | None | None | 2.2 (M46I) | [213] | ||||||
| Switzerland | 1996–2005 | 822 (241) | 3.7 total (nonsubtype B-specific mutations were not reported) | [14] | ||||||||
| UK | 2004–2006 | 239 (105) | None | 1.0 (K103N) | 1.0 (M46L) | [108] | ||||||
| UK | 1996–2003 | 2357 (424) | 13.4 total | [13] | ||||||||
| Multiple | 1997–2002 | 58 (58) | Not studied | Not studied | None | [214] | ||||||
| Multiple | 1986–1998 | 301 (187) | Not studied | Not studied | 2.1 (D30N, M46L, V82F, I85V) | [54] | ||||||
| North America | ||||||||||||
| USA (Boston) | 1999 | 115 (9) | None | None | None | [65] | ||||||
| USA (NYC) | 2000–2004 | 151 (9) | 11.1 (K219Q) | 11.1 (K103N) | None | [66] | ||||||
| USA | 1997–2000 | 520 (12§) | 8.3§ (M184I) | None§ | 15.4§ (D30N, M46I, G73S) | [215] | ||||||
| Central America | ||||||||||||
| Cuba | 2003 | 425 (141) | 1.4 (K70R, M184V, T215D) | None | None | [103] | ||||||
| South America | ||||||||||||
| Argentina | 2003–2005 | 323 (156) | 1.9 (M41L, M184V, L210W) | 1.9 (M46L, V82A) | 2.6 (V108I, K103N, Y181C) | [104] | ||||||
| Argentina | 2004–2005 | 52 (31) | None | 3.2 (K103N) | None | [105] | ||||||
| Brazil | 1998–2002 | 648 (64) | 6.3 (M41L, A62V, V75A, M184V, T215F) | None | 3.1 (M46L, V82A) | [106] | ||||||
| Brazil | 2005‡ | 108 (73) | None | None | None | [100] | ||||||
| Brazil | 2000–2004 | 74 (12) | None | None | None | [101] | ||||||
| Brazil | 2002 | 77 (6) | None | None | None | [102] | ||||||
*
Resistance (%) and specific mutations are based on data reported in the given study that appear on the surveillance drug-resistance mutation list or that are considered a major mutation by the International AIDS Society list. The data may or may not agree with the reported study depending on which list of mutations the authors referred to.
‡
The exact year of the sample population is unknown. Date refers to year of publication and/or the year sequences were deposited in Genbank.
§
Publications in which resistance data are unclear or not evaluated. Resistance data are gathered from sequences deposited in the Stanford Database [303]. CAR: Central African Republic; DRC: Democratic Republic of Congo; NNRTI: Non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor; NRTI: Nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor; NYC: New York City; PI: Protease inhibitor; TDR: Transmitted drug resistance.