Table 3.

Endpoints and outcome measures commonly employed in in vivo models for discovery of neuroprotective and neurorestorative agents

Indication	Endpoints/outcome measures	Timing
Stroke (focal ischemia)	Metabolic imaging (PET, MRS)	minute → hours
	Neurochemical or immunohistochemical mechanistic markers	minute → hours
	Physiological – CBF, edema	minute → hours
	Infarct size – histological or by MRI	24 h → 7 days
	Behavioral recovery – multiple scales	24 h → 7 days
Cardiac arrest/resuscitation (transient global ischemia)	Metabolic imaging (PET, MRS)	minute → hours
	Neurochemical or immunohistochemical mechanistic markers	minute → hours
	Physiological – CBF	minute → hours
	Neurophysiological – evoked potential, EEG	minute → hours
	Histological assessment of neuronal loss	3 h → 7 days (sometimes longer
	Survival and behavioral recovery	24 h → 7 days (sometimes longer)
Hemorrhagic stroke models (SAH or ICH)	Physiological – CBF, BBB opening, edema	minute → hours
	Neurochemical or immunohistochemical mechanistic markers	minute → hours
	Biochemical measurements in SAH clot	1 → 7 days
	Cerebral vasospasm – angiography	48 h → 7 days
	Histological assessment of ischemic damage	48 h → 7 days
TBI	Metabolic imaging (PET, MRS)	minute → hours
	Neurochemical or immunohistochemical mechanistic markers	minute → hours
	Physiological – CBF, BBB opening, edema	minute → hours
	Histological assessment of neuronal/ axonal loss	24 h → 7 days
	Behavioral recovery – motor and cognitive scales	48 h → 28 days
Subdural hematoma	Metabolic imaging (PET, MRS)	minute → hours
	Neurochemical or immunohistochemical mechanistic markers	minute → hours
	Physiological – CBF, BBB opening, edema	minute → hours
	Histological assessment of neuronal/ axonal loss	24 h → 7 days
SCI	Neurochemical or immunohistochemical mechanistic markers	minute → hours
	Physiological – SCBF	minute → hours
	Neurophysiological – sensory or motor evoked potentials	minute → hours → days 42 days
	Histological assessment of neuronal/ axonal loss	42 days
	Locomotor recovery