Table 1.

Results of PGLM models comparing (a) single paternity, multiple paternity, ovulation mode, length of mating season and litter size (n = 23 species; full model: adjusted R₂ = 0.86, F_5,18 = 35.24, p < 0.001) and (b) alpha paternity, association pattern between males and females (M–F association) and ovulation mode (n = 36 species; full model: adjusted R₂ = 0.46, F_4,32 = 11.32, p < 0.001). (Conventions for effect sizes: small r = 0.10, medium r = 0.30, large r = 0.50 (Cohen 1988). The non-central 95% CIs associated with r are presented; relationships are significant where CI exclude zero. λ = 0: trait has evolved independently of phylogeny, 0< λ <1: trait has evolved according to a process in which the effect of phylogeny is weaker than in the Brownian model, λ = 1: trait has evolved under Brownian evolution (Freckleton et al. 2002). SPO, spontaneous ovulation; IND, induced ovulation; CA, continuous association; IA, intermittent association.)

analysis	λ	variable	slope	t	p	r	CI
(a)	0.89a,b	multiple paternityc	−0.54	−9.42	<0.001	−0.91	−0.80/−0.95
		ovulation: IND	0
		ovulation: SPOc	−3.75	−2.47	0.024	−0.51	−0.73/−0.08
		length of mating season	−0.54	−0.49	0.487	−0.11	−0.49/0.33
		litter size	0.58	0.67	0.507	0.16	−0.30/0.53
(b)	0.51a	M–F association: CA	0
		M–F association: IAc	−8.69	−1.08	0.285	−0.24	−0.58/0.21
		ovulation: IND	0
		ovulation: SPO	7.20	0.87	0.389	0.20	−0.25/0.55
		M–F association: CA × ovulation: IND	0
		M–F association: CA × ovulation: SPO	0
		M–F association: IA × ovulation: IND	0
		M–F association: IA × ovulation: SPOc	29.75	−2.74	0.001	−0.54	−0.75/−0.15

^aSignificantly different from 0.

^bSignificantly different from 1.

^cSignificant overall (PGLM ANOVA p < 0.05).