Table 1.

Published research on discrimination and health in PubMed, 2005–2007^a

Study	Sample size	Design	Outcome variables	Findings
1. Mental health
Banks et al. (2006)	570 Blacks	Cross-sectional	Anxiety & depressive symptoms	Positive association
Beiser and Hou (2006)	647 SE Asian refugees	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms	Positive association
Bhui et al. (2005)	2054 UK workers	Cross-sectional	Anxiety & depression	Positive association
Birman et al. (2005)	269 Soviet immigrant teens in US	Cross-sectional	Russian identity American identity	Positive association Inverse association
Brody et al. (2006)	714 Black adolescents	Longitudinal	Conduct problems & depressive symptoms	Positive association
Brook et al. (2006a)	210 Black and Puerto Rican elementary kids	Cross-sectional	Rebellious behavior	Positive association
Brondolo et al. (2005)	420 Blacks & Latinos	Cross-sectional	Emotions of threat, harm, & anger	Positive association
Broudy et al. (2007)	113 Multiethnic adults	Cross-sectional	Daily moods (anger, sadness & nervousness)	Positive association
Bynum et al. (2007)	247 Black freshmen	Cross-sectional	Psychological distress	Positive association
Crouter et al. (2006)	218 Mexican American families	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms	Positive association
Dyrbye et al. (2007)	3,080 U.S. medical students	Cross-sectional	Burnout, depressive symptoms, low QOL	Positive association
Gee et al. (2006b)	666 U.S. blacks, black & Latino immigrants	Cross-sectional	Mental Health	Inverse association
Gee et al. (2007b)	2,047 Asian American adults	Cross-sectional	Past year mental disorders	Positive association
Greene et al. (2006)	136 High school students	Longitudinal	Depressive symptoms self- esteem Self-esteem	Positive association Inverse association
Karlsen et al. (2005)	3,446 from 5 UK ethnic immigrants	Cross-sectional	Psychosis Anxiety or depressive disorder	Positive association Positive association
Khaylis et al. (2007)	91 Undergrad students	Cross-sectional	PTSD symptoms	Positive association
Lam (2007)	122 Vietnamese college students	Cross-sectional	Depression & anxiety symptoms	Positive association
Lam et al. (2005)	1,451 Teens in Hong Kong	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms Life satisfaction & purpose	Positive association Inverse association
Lincoln et al. (2007)	4,915 African Americans & Caribbean Blacks	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms	Conditional association
Major et al. (2007)	3 Samples of Latino students (n = 191)	Cross-sectional	Self-esteem	Inverse association
Miller and Travers (2005)	208 UK minority ethnic teachers	Cross-sectional	Psychological symptoms (GHQ) Job satisfaction	Positive association Inverse association
Montgomery and Foldspang (2007)	131 Middle Eastern refugees in Denmark	Cross-sectional	Internalizing symptoms Externalizing symptoms	Positive association No association
Noh et al. (2007)	180 Adult Korean immigrants, Toronto	Cross-sectional	Positive affect Depressive symptoms	Inverse association Positive association
Oppedal et al. (2005)	1,275 Immigrant 10th graders in Norway	Cross-sectional	Psychiatric problems	Positive association
Pantzer et al. (2006)	1,246 Native and immigrant adolescents in Spain	Cross-sectional	Health related quality of life	Inverse association
Pole et al. (2005)	668 Hispanic, white and black police officers	Cross-sectional	PTSD symptoms	Positive association
Poyrazli and Lopez (2007)	439 International & U.S. college students	Cross-sectional	Homesickness	Positive association
Romero et al. (2007)	519 Latino & non-Latino teens	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms, drug use & violence	Positive association
Salvatore and Shelton (2007)	250 University students	Laboratory	Cognitive functioning	Inverse association
Schulz et al. (2006b)	700 Black women	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms	Positive association
Sheridan (2006)	222 British Muslims	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms	Positive association
Siefert et al. (2007)	824 Black mothers	Cross-sectional	Probable depression	Positive association
Simons et al. (2006)	332 Black teen males	Longitudinal	Violent delinquency	Positive association
Smokowski and Bacallao (2007)	323 Latino teens	Cross-sectional	Internalizing problems and low self-esteem	Positive association
Steffen and Bowden (2006)	168 Hispanic-American immigrants	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms Sleep disturbance	Positive association Positive association
Stevens et al. (2005a)	1,127 Moroccan immigrant teens in Netherlands	Cross-sectional	Externalizing behaviors	Positive association
Stevens et al. (2005b)	1,127 Moroccan immigrant teens in Netherlands	Cross-sectional	Internalizing problems	Positive association
Umaña-Taylor and Updegraff (2007)	273 Latino adolescents	Cross-sectional	Depressive symptoms	Positive association
Utsey and Hook (2007)	215 Black college students	Cross-sectional	Psychological distress	Positive association
Utsey et al. (2006)	323 U.S. black adults	Cross-sectional	Quality of life	Conditional association
Veling et al. (2007)	459 Ethnic minorities in The Netherlands	Cross-sectional	Incidence of psychotic disorders	Positive association
Vines et al. (2006)	476 Black women	Cross-sectional	Negative emotions	Positive association
Wadsworth et al. (2007)	626 Blacks, whites, & Bangladeshis	Cross-sectional	Psychological distress	Conditional association
Wagner and Abbott (2007)	120 Diabetic blacks	Cross-sectional	Depression	Positive association
Waltermaurer et al. (2006)	88 Black women	Cross-sectional	Intimate partner violence	Positive association
Wamala et al. (2007b)	33,328 Swedish adults	Cross-sectional	Psychological distress	Positive association
Yoder et al. (2006)	212 American Indian youth	Cross-sectional	Suicidal ideation	Positive association
2. Blood pressure/hypertension
Brown et al. (2006)	3,300 Multi-ethnic women	Cross-sectional	Systolic & diastolic BP	No association
Clark and Gochett (2006)	217 Black youth	Cross-sectional	Blood pressure	Conditional association
Clark (2006a)	234 Black high schoolers	Cross-sectional	Systolic & diastolic BP	Conditional association
Cozier et al. (2006)	2316 Black women	Longitudinal	Hypertension incidence	Conditional association
Davis et al. (2005)	356 Black adults	Cross-sectional	Hypertension	Conditional association
Matthews et al. (2005)	207 Black & white teens	Cross-sectional	Ambulatory blood pressure	Conditional association
Peters (2006)	162 Blacks	Cross-sectional	Chronic stress emotions Blood pressure	Positive association No association
Peters et al. (2007)	145 Black hypertensive patients	Cross-sectional	Blood pressure Satisfaction with care	Positive association Inverse association
Roberts et al. (2007)	1,110 Middle-aged blacks	Cross-sectional	Hypertension	Conditional association
Ryan et al. (2006)	666 U.S. blacks, blacks & Latino immigrants	Cross-sectional	Physical health Systolic pressure Diastolic pressure	Inverse association U-shaped association No association
3. Reactivity
Clark (2006b)	110 Black college women	Lab experiment	Vascular reactivity	Positive association
Clark et al. (2006)	72 black men	Lab experiment	Cardiovascular reactivity	Positive association
Clark et al. (2006a)	153 Black youth	Lab experiment	Large arterial elasticity	Conditional association
King (2005)	115 Black college women	Lab experiment	Affective stress reactions	Positive association
Lepore et al. (2006)	80 black & white women	Lab experiment	Cardiovascular reactivity	Positive association
Merritt et al. (2006)	73 Normotensive black men	Lab experiment	Cardiovascular reactivity	Positive association
Richman et al. (2007)	165 Normotensive black & white adults	Lab experiment	Cardiovascular reactivity	Positive association
Thomas et al. (2006)	122 Employed blacks & whites	Lab experiment	Reactivity to phenylephrine	Positive association
4. Other physical health
Borrell et al. (2006)	1,722 Blacks	Cross-sectional	Self-reported health (SF- 12) Depressive symptoms (CES-D)	Inverse association Positive association
Gee et al. (2007a)	2,095 Asian Americans	Cross-sectional	Chronic health conditions	Positive association
Gee et al. (2006a)	2,241 Filipino Americans	Cross-sectional	Chronic health conditions	Positive association
Harris et al. (2006a)	4,108 Maori & 6,269 Europeans in New Zealand	Cross-sectional	4 self-reported measures of ill health	Positive association
Harris et al. (2006b)	12,500 Adults in New Zealand	Cross-sectional	5 measures of self-reported ill health	Positive association
Larson et al. (2007)	639 Aboriginal & other Australians	Cross-sectional	Self-reported poor physical & mental health	Positive association
Lauderdale (2006)	15,064 Arab women	Cross-sectional	Low birth weight and prematurity	Positive association
Lewis et al. (2006)	181 Black women	Longitudinal	Coronary artery calcification	Positive association
Locher et al. (2005)	1,000 Elderly adults	Cross-sectional	Nutritional risk	Conditional association
Moody-Ayers et al. (2005)	42 Diabetic blacks	Cross-sectional	Glycosylated hemoglobin Self-rated health	No association No association
Piette et al. (2006)	810 Adult diabetes patients	Cross-sectional	Hemoglobin A1c Physical symptom burden Poor physical functioning (SF-12)	Positive association Positive association Positive association
Schulz et al. (2006a)	343 Black women	Longitudinal	Symptoms of depression Self-rated health	Positive association Inverse association
Sellers et al. (2006)	399 Well-educated black men	Cross-sectional	Physical health Mental health	No association Inverse association
Stetler et al. (2006)	48 Black participants	Longitudinal	Antibody response to flu vaccine	Inverse association
Sujoldzic et al. (2006)	1,282 Immigrant teens from Bosnia and Herzegovina residing in Bosnia, Croatia or Austria	Cross-sectional	Health problems Psychological well-being	Positive association Inverse association
Taylor et al. (2007)	49,161 Black women	Longitudinal	Breast cancer incidence	Positive association
Thomas et al. (2006)	93 Employed men & women	Cross-sectional	Sleep stage 4 Physical fatigue	Inverse association Positive association
Vines et al. (2007)	447 Black women (35– 49 years)	Cross-sectional	Waist-hip ratio	Inverse association
Wise et al. (2007)	22,002 U.S. black women	Longitudinal	Incidence of uterine leiomyomata (fibroids, myomas)	Positive association
Young et al. (2005)	1,008 Illicit drug users	Cross-sectional	Mental health Chronic conditions	Inverse association Positive association
Zamboni and Crawford (2007)	174 Black gay/bisexual men	Cross-sectional	Sexual problems	Positive association
5. Health care utilization
Adegbembo et al. (2006)	924 Low-income blacks & whites	Cross-sectional	Health care trust	Positive association
Banks and Dracup (2006)	61 Blacks with MI	Cross-sectional	Delay in seeking treatment	No association
Bazargan et al. (2005)	287 Black and Latino adults	Cross-sectional	Alternative care use as substitute for conventional care	Positive association
Benkert et al. (2006)	145 Low-income blacks	Cross-sectional	Satisfaction with care	Inverse association
Casagrande et al. (2007)	1,408 Blacks & whites	Cross-sectional	Delays in seeking medical care Non-adherence to medical care	Positive association Positive association
Chen et al. (2005)	3.884 adults	Cross-sectional	Preferences for same race physician	Positive association
Dailey et al. (2007)	1,229 Black and white women	Cross-sectional	Mammography screening	No association
Etowa et al. (2007)	237 Black Canadian women	Cross-sectional	Access to healthcare	Inverse association
Facione and Facione (2007)	817 Latino, black & white women	Cross-sectional	Non-adherence to cancer screening & fewer provider visits	Positive association
Fowler-Brown et al. (2006)	3,694 Black & white rural southern adults	Cross-sectional	Satisfaction with care Preventative services use	Inverse association No association
Hoyo et al. (2005)	144 Adult black women	Cross-sectional	Adherence to pap smear screening	No association
Jang et al. (2005)	230 Korean elderly	Cross-sectional	Satisfaction with care	Inverse association
Malat and Hamilton (2006)	1,189 Blacks	Cross-sectional	Preference for same race physician	Positive association
Malat and van Ryn (2005)	1,189 Blacks	Cross-sectional	Preference for same race physician	Positive association
Nápoles-Springer et al. (2005)	163 Blacks, Latinos & whites	Cross-sectional	Perceptions of the quality of medical encounters	Inverse association
Sohler et al. (2007)	523 Adults	Cross-sectional	Poor quality of healthcare	Positive association
Trivedi and Ayanian (2006)	54,968 Respondents	Cross-sectional	Received: cholesterol test, eye exam, hemoglobin A1c & flu shots Received: aspirin, PSA test	Inverse association No association
Van Houtven et al. (2005)	545 Black, Latino & white adults	Cross-sectional	Delay of filling prescriptions Delay of treatments	Positive association Positive association
Wamala et al. (2007a)	31,851 Swedish adults	Cross-sectional	Refraining from seeking treatment	Positive association
6. Substance use & health behaviors
Bennett et al. (2005)	2,129 Black college students	Cross-sectional	Tobacco use	Positive association
Borrell et al. (2007)	1,507 Blacks & 1,813 whites	Cross-sectional	Lifetime crack, speed, heroin Alcohol, tobacco use Lifetime cocaine & marijuana	No association Positive association Positive association
Brook et al. (2006b)	731 South African teens	Cross-sectional	Cigarette smoking	Positive association
Choi et al. (2006)	2,082 Middle school (multi & monoracial)	Cross-sectional	Ever substance use & frequency Violent behavior	Positive association Positive association
Gee et al. (2007a)	2,217 Filipino Americans	Cross-sectional	Prescription medication use Illicit drug use Alcohol dependence	Positive association Positive association Positive association
Gibbons et al. (2007)	889 Black families	Longitudinal	Subsequent drug use	Positive association
Kalichman et al. (2006)	2,122 Black and Coloured South Africans	Cross-sectional	HIV risk behavior	Positive association
Krieger et al. (2005)	159 Blacks, 249 Latinos & 208 whites	Cross-sectional	Cigarette smoking Psychological distress	Positive association Positive association
Landrine et al. (2006)	1,569 Black, Latino, Asian, and White adults	Cross-sectional	Cigarette smoking & psychiatric symptoms	Positive association
Terrell et al. (2006)	134 Black adolescents	Cross-sectional	Alcohol consumption	Positive association

^aConditional association = discrimination is unrelated to health in the overall sample, but an association exits only for some sub-group