Table 4.
Wage Penalties for Motherhood by Country, Birth Cohort, and Marital Status: Selectivity-Corrected Fixed-Effects Estimates
| Model | Germany, 1960–1964 | Germany, 1965–1969 | Britain, 1965–1969 | United States, 1955–1959 | United States, 1960–1964 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Married and Cohabiting Mothers | ||||||
| Specification A: Gross wage penalty | −0.194** (0.019) |
−0.180** (0.024) |
−0.135** (0.025) |
−0.085** (0.010) |
−0.147** (0.010) |
|
| Specification B: Net of actual experience | −0.148** (0.019) |
−0.163** (0.020) |
−0.088** (0.024) |
−0.036** (0.009) |
−0.065** (0.007) |
|
| Specification C: Net of actual experience and work interruptions | −0.125** (0.022) |
−0.107** (0.026) |
−0.004 (0.021) |
−0.014 (0.010) |
−0.016* (0.008) |
|
| Specification D: Net of actual experience, interruption, and employer change at reentry | −0.126** (0.023) |
−0.109** (0.026) |
0.017 (0.023) |
−0.007 (0.011) |
−0.009 (0.009) |
|
| Specification E: Wage penalty net of labor market behavior | −0.118** (0.022) |
−0.117** (0.026) |
0.010 (0.023) |
0.010 (0.011) |
−0.003 (0.008) |
|
| Number of observations | 4,347 | 4,151 | 3,902 | 15,798 | 27,030 | |
| Number of persons | 1,010 | 1,024 | 855 | 1,790 | 3,001 | |
| Single Mothers | ||||||
| Specification A: Gross wage penalty | −0.093** (0.029) |
−0.094** (0.033) |
−0.044 (0.049) |
−0.092** (0.010) |
−0.147** (0.009) |
|
| Specification B: Net of actual experience | −0.048 (0.029) |
−0.088** (0.030) |
−0.004 (0.047) |
−0.044** (0.009) |
−0.076** (0.006) |
|
| Specification C: Net of actual experience and work interruptions | −0.045 (0.034) |
−0.076 (0.042) |
0.012 (0.048) |
−0.046** (0.011) |
−0.075** (0.008) |
|
| Specification D: Net of actual experience, interruption, and employer change at reentry | −0.028 (0.035) |
−0.091* (0.043) |
0.042 (0.070) |
−0.037** (0.012) |
−0.070** (0.009) |
|
| Specification E: Wage penalty net of labor market behavior | −0.012 (0.034) |
−0.092* (0.042) |
0.060 (0.068) |
−0.019 (0.011) |
−0.055** (0.008) |
|
| Number of observations | 2,469 | 3,276 | 2,217 | 17,314 | 30,721 | |
| Number of persons | 615 | 817 | 556 | 2,011 | 3,431 | |
Notes: Coefficients are for the per child penalty in log wage regressions for the female labor force only. Parameter estimates for controls are omitted for presentation; full results are available from the authors upon request. Selectivity-correction terms are identified from age of the youngest child in the household, marital status (never married, married, separated/divorced/widowed), and their interaction. Asymptotic standard errors are shown in parentheses.
Sources: GSOEP 1984–2001; BHPS 1991–2001; and NLSY 1979–1996.
*
p < .05;
**
p < .01