Table 5.

Exposure levels associated with cancer.

Cancer/study population, reference	Exposure/risk estimate
Lung, Belgium, n = 994, 15-year observation; Nawrot et al. 2006	Hazard ratios of 1.7, 2.6, and 1.6 were attributed to a 2-fold increase in body burden, living in high-exposure area, and a 2-fold increase in soil cadmium, respectively.
Pancreas, Egypt, n = 31 cases, 52 controls; Kriegel et al. 2006	ORs of 1.12 and 3.25 were attributed to elevated serum cadmium and farming occupation, respectively.
Breast, United States, n = 246 cases, 254 controls; McElroy et al. 2006	OR of 2.3 when comparing urinary cadmium < 0.26 versus ≥ 0.58 μg/g creatinine
Endometrium, Sweden, n = 30,210, 16-year observation; Åkesson et al. 2008	OR of 2.9 was attributed to cadmium intake > 15 μg/day.
Prostate, China; n = 297, Zeng et al. 2004	Dose response between body burden and abnormal serum PSA levels
Prostate, Italy, n = 45 cases, 58 controls; Vinceti et al. 2007	OR of 4.7 when comparing nail cadmium content in the lowest versus the highest quartile
Prostate, United States, n = 422; Wijngaarden et al. 2008	An increase of urinary cadmium to 1 μg/g creatinine associated with a 35% increase in serum PSA
Urinary bladder, Belgium, n = 172 cases, 395 controls; Kellen et al. 2007	OR of 5.7 when comparing blood cadmium in the lowest versus the highest tertile

Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; PSA, prostate-specific antigen.