Table 1.

Assessment Model Studies

Source	Design	Focus/Dependent variable	Sample description	Results
Barnard, Bee, and Hammond (1984)	Descriptive: Two-group longitudinal observation; comparison on three occasions	Change in maternal and child feeding and teaching interaction behavior was rated on scales reported by Barnard and Eyres (1979). The home environment was rated with the HOME (Caldwell & Bradley, 1984).	Mother–infant dyads/88 premature infants < 34 weeks gestation at birth (average age 31.1 weeks, SD = 1.45); 166 term infants mean gestational age 39.4 weeks (SD = 1.1) Infants were 4, 8, and 24 months post-term age when observed. United States	Premature infants increased in responsiveness between 4 and 8 months. However, the mothers of premature infants were less sensitive and responsive to their infants at 8 months than were mothers of full-term infants.
Becker, Engelhardt, Steinmann, and Kane (1997)	Descriptive, correlational	The relationship of the child’s developmental level, immediate context, and family and social system characteristics to the interactive behavior of mothers and infants with and without mental delay.	Thirty mother–infant dyads in each group (study and comparison) Infants in their first and second years were matched at 9 and 19 months mental age (8 and 18 months chronological age). 59 Caucasian, 1 Native American United States	Interactive behavior of infants with special needs was rated as less clear in communicative signals and less responsive than that of typically developing infants of similar mental age; behavior of mothers was rated less optimal in support for social-emotional and cognitive development—differences appeared in the demanding teaching but not in the more casual feeding situations.
Benzies, Harrison, and Magill-Evans (1998)	Descriptive, correlational	The relationships between 4-year-old, preschool behavior problems and parent (mother, father) teaching interactions with healthy term and premature infants, marital quality, and family socioeconomic status, all assessed at 12 months after the child was discharged from the hospital.	80 mothers and 74 fathers (74 families) Mothers’ average age was approximately 29 years; fathers’ average age was approximately 32 years. All children, except one, were Caucasian. Canada	The parent and infant PCI teaching interaction scores were not associated with preschool behavior problems for either mothers or fathers or for term or premature children. Maternal perceptions of marital quality were associated with both the frequency and impact of the child’s behavior problems, whereas, for fathers, marital quality and family socioeconomic status were associated with the impact of behavior problems for fathers.
Boechler, Harrison, and Magill-Evans (2003)	Descriptive, correlational	The relationship of the amount of paternal caregiving to the quality of the teaching interaction behavior of fathers and their healthy infants and toddlers.	110 father–child dyads Fathers were English-speaking, over 20 years of age, living in a stable relationship with the child’s mother (the primary caregiver). All but 6 fathers were Euro–Canadian. Children (51 girls, 59 boys) were between 2 and 24 months of age. Canada	Fathers in higher and lower caregiving involvement groups did not differ on sensitivity to the child’s cues and responsiveness to the child’s distress. However, fathers who were more involved in caregiving in the previous week had higher scores on cognitive growth fostering of the PCI teaching interaction scale.
Brown (2007)	Correlational, longitudinal	Development of premature infant physiologic regulation, assessed with heart rate variability, in relation to maternal feeding behavior beginning with the time caregiving responsibility was transferred to the mother at special care nursery discharge through the infant’s 4th post-term month.	Forty-three mother–premature dyads observed at time of discharge and at 1 and 4 months infant post-term age. Race/ethnicity: 31 European American; 6 African American; 2 Asian American, 2 Latino, and 2 mixed race/ethnicity United States	Maternal feeding behavior (positive affective involvement and sensitivity/responsivity) was not associated with infant either low frequency or high frequency heart-rate variability at any of the three observations.
Brown and Pridham (2007)	Multivariate correlational and longitudinal study	The contribution of the adaptiveness of early maternal feeding behavior to the adaptiveness of later infant feeding behavior, accounting for maternal depressive symptoms and the degree of infant neonatal health.	The sample is described above for Brown (2007).	The adaptiveness of maternal feeding behavior (measured as positive affective involvement and sensitivity/responsivity and as regulation of affect and behavior) contributed to the adaptiveness of infant feeding behavior at 4 months post-term age, accounting for neonatal health and maternal depressive symptoms.
Cho, Holditch-Davis, and Belyea (2004)	Correlational study of child and family system factors contributing to mother–infant interaction; secondary analysis	Effect of child gender and maternal ethnicity on maternal and child positive and negative affect and discrete interactive behaviors as well as on HOME scale scores.	Three-year-old male and female prematurely born children (n = 53) and their primary caretakers, either their mothers (n = 44) or their grandmothers (n = 4). Mothers of female infants, mean years of age = 29.2 (SD = 5.1) Race/ethnicity: 21 of the primary caretakers were White; 27 were non-White, including 24 African Americans, and 3 Native Americans United States	Although some maternal interactive behaviors were associated with the child’s gender and with ethnicity, child behaviors were not. Gender and ethnic group differences were influenced by the mother’s education and illness severity.
Cho, Holditch-Davis, & Miles (2008)	Longitudinal, descriptive (correlational) study; secondary analysis with samples from three studies; in-home observation between 6 and 24 months	Effects of maternal depressive symptoms and infant gender on mother–infant interactions and their prematurely born infants, their medically fragile infants, or their HIV-positive infants. Four global interactive dimensions (mother attention, mother restrictiveness, infant social behaviors, and infant negativism) were constructed from naturalistic observation of discrete interactive behaviors. HOME inventory subscale scores were also used.	One hundred eight prematurely born infants and their mothers; 67 medically fragile infants and their mothers; and 83 infants seropositive for HIV and their mothers. Mothers’ mean years of age: premature infants, 28.5 (SD = 6.5); medically fragile infants, 27 (SD = 5.9); HIV seropositive, 26.2 (SD = 5.7) Race/ethnicity: Percent African American— premature infants, 44.4%; medically fragile infants, 34.3%; HIV-seropositive infants, 85.9%	Maternal depressive symptoms were associated with somewhat lessened attentiveness for mothers of medically fragile infants and for mothers of HIV-positive infants. Mothers of medically fragile infants with higher levels of depressive symptoms were also more restrictive. Maternal depressive symptoms did not moderate the effects of gender on mother-infant interaction.
Choi and Hamilton (1986)	Descriptive: Two-group observation; comparison on one occasion	Influence of culture on maternal views of the infant and maternal reciprocity during feeding, measured with the Maternal–Infant Adaptation Scale, and sensitivity during play interaction, measured with the Mother–Infant Play Interaction Scale (both scales are adaptations of Price’s [1983] AMIS Scale).	Thirty-nine mother–infant dyads observed 2–3 days after delivery: (a) 21 Native-born American Caucasian mothers and their infants; (b) 18 Korean-born mothers living in the United States and their infants. United States	The two groups of mothers did not differ in reciprocity or in sensitivity. Korean mothers viewed their infants as more passive than American mothers viewed their infants.
Coffman, Levitt, and Guacci-Franco (1995)	Comparative; one observation	Relationship between infant temperament and attachment Measures: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (Ainsworth & Wittig, 1969), maternal responsiveness tool developed for the study, and the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ; Bates, Freeland, & Lounsbury, 1979)	Forty-nine mother–infant dyads Infants: All healthy; age 13 months on average, range 12–15 months Mothers’ age average: 31 years, range 22–40; Marital status—90% married Race/ethnicity—48 White, 1 African American United States	Infant temperament was more strongly related to attachment than maternal responsiveness. Mothers perceived infants rated as Anxious-Avoidant in attachment as significantly easier in temperament.
Davis, Mohay, and Edwards (2003)	Descriptive, correlational study; two self-reports of maternal psychosocial variables and infant perinatal variables and one observation of feeding interaction	Bivariate correlation of feeding interaction of mothers and their premature infants with maternal coping, depression, educational level, family support and stress, and infant birth attributes.	Fifty mother–infant dyads Infants: For coping assessment, 1 month after nursery discharge; for interaction assessment, 3 months after nursery discharge Australia	Mothers whose coping at 1 month after nursery discharge included family integration, cooperation, and an optimistic definition of the situation had higher scores on the PCI feeding scales at 3 months after discharge. Feeding scores were not associated, on bivariate tests, with infant gestational age, birth weight, or Apgar scores, with maternal education level or history of depression at 1 month after discharge, or with nursing or family support or stress.
Dunn and White (1981)	Descriptive, one observation	Influence of fathers and staff on the interaction of first- and second-time mothers with healthy newborns after the delivery in the labor ward.	Eight first-time families; 8 second-time families London, UK	Mothers’ interactions with first- and second-born infants did not differ. Maternal interaction was passive, with little vocalization, smiling, or intimate touching; looking was moderate in amount. Maternal interaction with the newborn was reduced with both paternal and midwife presence.
Feeley, Gottlieb, and Zelkowitz (2005)	Prospective study; two data collections, one observation	Examination of the contribution to PCI teaching interaction scores of infants (birth weight, perceived illness severity), mothers (anxiety and level of education), and social context (maternal received and perceived support and its helpfulness).	Seventy-two mother–infant dyads Infants: Very low-birth-weight at 3 and 9 months, age corrected for prematurity Mothers: on average approximately 32 years old: almost 14 years of education; 69% were married and 57% were first-time mothers Race-ethnicity: some immigrants, not specified Canada	Infant, mother, and social contextual factors were assessed at 3 and 9 months of infant age. Mother–infant teaching interaction was observed at 9 months of age. Dyads with more sensitive and responsive interaction had mothers with more years of education and less anxiety on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983) and who perceived more support at 3 months.
Feeley, Gottlieb, and Zelkowitz (2007)	Comparative study; one observation	Comparison of the quality of teaching interaction of mothers and fathers of very low-birth- weight infants.	Mothers and fathers of 9-month-old infants weighing < 1,500 g at birth; majority were first-time parents, married, and, on average, in their early 30s and with 14 years of education/61 couples/Canada; some recent immigrants.	Mothers and fathers were not significantly different on the quality of teaching interaction assessed with the PCI (total score, parent score).
Gaffney, Barnett-Maglio, Myers, and Kollar (2002)	Descriptive; correlational; one observation	Relationships among prenatally reported experience of discipline as a child and intentions for disciplining the expected baby, and, at 8 months postbirth, reported intentions for discipline and observed maternal role sufficiency behaviors, assessed with the HOME and PCI teaching score.	One hundred twenty-six mother–infant dyads Infants: 8 months postbirth Mothers: Average age, 23 years (SD = 4.81); average education, 12th grade (SD = 1.59); 37% were living with their partners. Race/ethnicity: 64% White; 36% African American United States	Mothers who were clinically at risk for nonsupportive parenting, determined by either their PCI teaching scores or by HOME scores at 8 months, scored higher prenatally on a measure of intentions to use harsh, non-nurturing discipline strategies than mothers who were not at risk.
Harrison and Magill-Evans (1996)	Descriptive, correlational, longitudinal (two observations)	Comparison of the teaching interactions of mothers and fathers of term and premature infants in association with parenting stress, marital support, and amount of parent contact with the infant.	One hundred three families Infants: 54 term born, 49 prematurely born; 3 and 12 months postdischarge Parents: All but four families were White. Canada	Neither parenting stress, marital support, nor amount of parent contact with the infant, examined in bivariate analysis, accounted for the lower PCI teaching scores given parents of premature infants compared with ratings given to parents of term infants. Although, in both term and premature groups, fathers had lower interaction scores than mothers, scores decreased for both parents over time. Infant scores on Responsiveness to Caregiving and Clarity of cues increased.
Harrison, Magill-Evans, and Sadoway (2001)	Descriptive; one observation	Comparison of father–healthy toddler teaching interaction to reference sample of mothers.	Forty-nine father–toddler dyads Toddlers: 13–24 months recruited from public health centers or community organizations Fathers: All but 3 were White; matched with mothers in the PCI database Canada	Compared with the PCI reference sample of 164 mothers of similar ethnicity and marital status with children of similar ages, the fathers had significantly lower PCI total parent scores as well as lower scores for contingency of response to child behavior. Toddlers had higher clarity of cue scores, total scores, and contingency scores than reference sample toddlers. Fathers’ age and education were not associated with teaching scores.
Holditch-Davis, Bartlett, and Belyea (2000)	Descriptive; two 2-hour observations	Relationship of developmental problems (cognitive, language, and/or attention) of prematurely born children to teaching interactions and to the home environment.	Forty-one mothers, 3 grandmothers; 49 children (5 sets of twins)/ Children: 3 years, post-term age Race–ethnicity was not described. United States	Children with low IQs spent less time playing and scored lower on the PCI teaching scale than children with higher IQs. Children with language problems had mothers who interacted less, talked less, were more negative, and scored lower on the HOME and PCI teaching scales than mothers of children without language problems. Children with attention problems were more active than children without attention problems.
Holditch-Davis, Miles, and Belyea, (2000)	Descriptive; one observation	Similarities and differences in interaction of caregivers (mothers or grandmothers) and premature infants during feeding and nonfeeding periods.	Twenty-nine caregiver–infant dyads Infants: 6 months post-term age Caregivers: race–ethnicity—White: 62.1%; African American: 34.5%; Asian: 3.4% United States	Mothers engaged in more interaction during feeding than during nonfeeding periods. During feeding, they were more likely to have body contact and look at, hold, and rock their infants. During nonfeeding periods, maternal behaviors were more likely to be distal, such as gesturing, touching, and playing with the infant. During nonfeeding periods, infants were more likely to be alert, vocalize, play with objects, express negative affect, and move. During feeding, infants were more likely to be drowsy or asleep.
Holditch-Davis, Cox, Miles, and Belyea (2003)	Descriptive; one observation	Comparison of the interactions of mothers and their medically fragile infants (premature, full term) with those of mothers and premature infants without chronic illness.	69 Mother-infant dyads Infants: 20 medically fragile full-term infants; 41 medically fragile premature infants; 28 non-chronically ill premature infants: 6 months, post-term age Race/ethnicity: White:, 60%; African American, 30%; Hispanic, 5%; Asian, 5% USA	Mothers of the medically fragile infants, both full term and premature, spent more time interacting with them than did mothers with nonchronically ill premature infants. The nonchronically ill infants had more mature play and motor behaviors than the medically fragile infants.
Holditch-Davis, Schwartz, Black, and Scher (2007)	Descriptive, longitudinal, correlational study	The contribution of child characteristics, child illness severity, maternal characteristics and psychological well-being, and paternal support to dimensions of maternal and premature infant interaction.	108 mother-premature infant dyads Infants: 6 or 18 months old, post-term age; Race/ethnicity: Euro-American, 56%; African American, 43% Asian, 1% USA	Age did not significantly interact with any of the child, maternal, or paternal characteristics to affect maternal or child interactive dimensions. Mothers with singletons or more infant illness stress had more positive involvement with their infants. Mothers with less infant illness stress, less education, or less paternal participation in caregiving showed more negative control. Mothers of first babies and of singletons gave greater developmental stimulation. Children of younger and of Euro–American mothers demonstrated more social behavior, and children who received shorter periods of mechanical ventilation and who had mothers with less education had greater developmental maturity. Maternal depressive symptoms did not have a significant effect on any of the maternal or child interactive dimensions.
Horodynski and Gibbons (2004)	Descriptive, longitudinal one group study, before and after a program	Comparison of mother–child interaction at entry to and exit from a rural Early Head Start Program and with a national sample, using the PCI teaching assessment.	Thirty mother–child dyads Children: averaged 16 months, range 1–30 months Race–ethnicity predominantly Caucasian United States	Mother–child interaction scores did not change significantly from entry to exit from the program, 14 months on average. However, more than half of the mothers maintained or improved their sensitivity to cues and response to distress. Mothers’ scores were similar to the national sample scores, and the total PCI teaching score at exit was closer to the national sample score than at entry. Forty percent of the mothers continued to be at risk for poor interaction.
Kussano and Maehara (1998)	Descriptive, comparison of two groups on one occasion	The difference in bonding behavior of Brazilian and Japanese mothers on their first visit to their preterm infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).	Thirty-five mothers (19 Japanese, 16 Brazilian) and their newborn preterm infants Mothers: mean years of age 27.8 (SD = 3.7), 23.5 (SD = 7.8) Japanese and Brazilian, respectively Japan	Brazilian mothers exhibited significantly more bonding behavior per unit time than Japanese mothers. Although bonding behaviors differed between the two groups, maternal affective perceptions of the infant and motherhood did not.
LeCuyer-Maus (2000)	Descriptive, correlational; observation (laboratory) on one occasion	The relationship of maternal sensitivity and responsiveness in interactions with more and less control saliency.	Sixty-one mother–child dyads Infants: Healthy; 12 months of age Race/ethnicity: 70% Caucasian; 16% African American; 2% Native American; 8% multi-ethnic United States	On the whole, mothers were less sensitive in their interactions in situations requiring control. Mothers who were more sensitive in situations in which control was relatively less important were also more sensitive in situations in which control was important to the child’s compliance or participation. Maternal sensitivity and responsiveness in interaction with the child varied with maternal style of control. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that mother’s income or age did not explain a significant amount of the variance in style of control after accounting for maternal sensitivity and responsiveness and the mother’s history of overprotection or control with her own parents.
Letourneau, Hungler, and Fisher (2005)	Comparison of two low-income groups (nonprobability sample) on one occasion; secondary analysis	The relationship between PCI teaching interaction and ethnicity (Canadian Aboriginal, non-Aboriginal compared with each other and with the PCI reference population).	Twelve Aboriginal parent–child pairs (11 mothers, 1 father); 48 non-Aboriginal parent–child pairs (47 mothers, 1 father). Children: Mean age = 17 months, range 5–35 months Race/ethnicity: Non-Aboriginal families were mostly Caucasian Australia	Although Aboriginal parents were less verbal with their children and had lower cognitive-growth fostering scores than non-Aboriginal parents, the overall teaching interaction quality did not differ from that of other low-income parents. In both Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal groups, parent and child interaction scores were lower than the PCI 10th percentile score.
MacDonald-Clark and Boffman (1995)	Descriptive; observation/interview on one occasion; comparison with normative sample	Influence of culture (Alaskan Yup’ik Eskimo) and environment on maternal–term infant interaction (feeding, teaching) and home environment, assessed with the HOME scales.	Sixty-eight mother–infant dyads, 30 for feeding, 63 for teaching Infants: < 12 months of age	The normative PCI reference population was similar in marital status and age of the child. However, education of the Eskimo mothers was lower than the normative sample. Mothers’ scores on the PCI subscales Sensitivity to Cues and Response to Distress for both feeding and teaching interactions were higher than the scores of the PCI reference population. However, mothers’ feeding scores on cognitive growth fostering were lower than the feeding scores for the PCI reference population. Infants were lower than the PCI reference population on Responsiveness to Parent. Eskimo HOME subscale scores for emotional and verbal responsivity to the mother and maternal involvement with the child as well as several other subscale scores were significantly lower than for the reference population.
Magill-Evans, Harrison, and Burke (1999)	Descriptive, correlational; part of a longitudinal study of children from birth until 4 years of age	The teaching interaction of mothers and fathers of healthy premature and full-term infants, assessed with the PCI scale at 3 and 12 months, in relationship with child mental and communicative development at 18 months adjusted age. In addition, the relationship of teaching interaction scores with parenting stress, assessed with the Parenting Stress Index (Abidin, 1995), was examined.	One hundred three two-parent families; fathers and mothers of 49 healthy preterm and 54 full-term infants Race/ethnicity: All except four children were White; English was spoken to the child in the home. No parents were recent immigrants Canada	Fathers and mothers were independently observed in teaching interactions with the child. The Bayley Mental score (Bayley, 1969) was predicted by the mother’s teaching score at 12 months as well as by family socioeconomic status and infant gender. The interactions of mothers and fathers with the child (mothers at 3 and 12 months, fathers at 3 months) and infant gender contributed to receptive communication skills, but not to expressive language skills. The birth maturity status of the group (preterm, full-term) was a predictor for words produced but not for mental development or receptive language skills. Although for mothers parenting stress pertaining to child characteristics was negatively related to the quality of teaching interaction, it was not for fathers. Perception of parenting stress by either the mother or father was not associated with any of the developmental variables. A maximum of 22% of the variance in developmental outcome was explained in any of the analyses.
McGrath, Sullivan, and Seifer (1996)	Descriptive, correlational; one observation (laboratory); part of an ongoing longitudinal study	Relationship of maternal compensatory interactive behavior (responsiveness, involvement, and control style) with child problem-solving, cognitive, and language competencies assessed in a laboratory protocol and home visit. Perinatal risk and maternal education were accounted for in the research design.	One hundred eighty-four mother– preschool-aged child dyads Children: 39 full term, 32 healthy premature; 28 small for gestational age; 53 sick premature; 32 premature with neurologic or medical problems Race/ethnicity: Caucasian 89% United States	Mothers of children in the sickest birth group had the highest involvement score. Mothers of the healthiest children at birth had the lowest involvement. Maternal responsivity involvement and control style (supportive presence and problem-solving assistance) significantly contributed to linguistic, cognitive, and problem-solving competencies, accounting for perinatal risk and maternal education. These findings support the compensatory hypothesis of maternal interactive behavior.
Onyskiw, Harrison, and Magill-Evans (1997)	Descriptive, correlational; one observation (home) at 12 months after the infant’s discharge from the hospital; component of a longitudinal study	Relationship between parents’ childhood experiences in their family of origin, current level of perceived marital support, and quality of parent teaching interaction, independently assessed for fathers and for mothers with the PCI scale. Marital support was assessed with the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976) and childhood experiences in the family of origin were assessed with the Parental Acceptance- Rejection Questionnaire (Rohner, 1986).	Sixty-six families—mother, father, and infant Singleton infants were healthy premature infants (average gestational age 34.3 weeks at birth) or full-term infants. All but one family was White; none were recent immigrants Canada	For mothers, no relationship between childhood experiences (acceptance and warmth) and the quality of teaching interaction was identified on regression analysis. For fathers, the relationship depended on marital support. Fathers who reported less positive childhood experiences but who had a more optimal level of marital support had higher teaching interaction scores on responsivity. Socioeconomic status was the only predictor of the quality of maternal teaching interaction.
Pridham, Schroeder, Brown, and Clark (2001)	Descriptive, correlational, longitudinal; observation on four occasions; component of a larger study	The contribution of infant birth maturity status, current weight, maternal symptoms of depression, assessed with the CES-D scale (Radloff, 1977), and the attunement of the maternal working model of feeding to maternal interaction, examined with ratings on eight dimension of responses to a focused interview and behavior, assessed with the Parent–Child Early Relational Assessment (Clark, 1999).	Ninety-nine mother–infant dyads Infants: 47 healthy full-term;, 52 prematurely born; observations at 1, 4, 8, and 12 months post-term age Race/ethnicity: 93% of mothers of full-term infants were White, 92.3% of mothers of premature infants were White with the remaining mothers African American. United States	Maternal symptoms of depression, infant weight, and the attunement of the mother’s internal working model of infant feeding to the infant’s agendas and needs contributed significantly to maternal sensitivity and responsiveness during feeding.
Schiffman, Omar, & McKelvey (2003)	Factor searching, comparison	Describe the interaction of low-income mothers and infants on a teaching task; determine differences on scores by the mother’s marital status, race/ethnicity, and an age/educational level variable; and compare study mother-infant scores with the PCI national database of mothers and very young children.	156 mother-infant pairs Infant age averaged 4.6 months (SD = 3.07) Race/ethnicity: Approximately 75% of the mothers were Caucasian; 16.8% were African American United States	Mean teaching scales for mothers or infants did not differ by mother’s marital status, race/ethnicity, or the age/educational level variable. The sample was most like the PCI sample of low-education adolescents and least like the PCI sample of high-education adults. The investigators note that the study infants were younger than the PCI reference sample infants and that approximately 30% of the reference sample mothers had at least 16 years of education compared to less than 1% of the study sample.
Sullivan & McGrath (1999)	Descriptive, correlational; observation on one occasion in both laboratory and home settings, a component of a longitudinal study	The relationship to maternal control style for healthy children of distal maternal characteristics (maternal education, age, occupation) and proximal characteristics (maternal responsivity and involvement).	184 mother-child dyads Child: mean age 4 years Race/ethnicity: 89% Caucasian United States	Maternal control style (i.e., redirective, authoritative, authoritarian, or inconsistent) was better predicted by observed or reported characteristics of interaction (maternal responsiveness, involvement with the child, and self-esteem) than by personal attributes (e.g., maternal age, education, and occupation).
Taubenheim (1981)	Descriptive; observation on three occasions	The bonding behavior and attitudes of first-time fathers the first, second, and third days after the birth of a healthy term infant.	10 fathers and their newborn infants Race/ethnicity: Caucasian United States	The three fathers with the highest number of bonding behaviors fed their newborns when brought into the mother’s room for feeding in the postpartum period, whereas the three fathers with the lowest number of bonding behaviors did not.
Tilokskulchai, Phatthanasiriwet-hin, Vichitsukon, & Serisathien (2002)	Descriptive; one observation	Attachment behaviors by mothers during first neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) visit with their low-birth-weight premature infants.	30 mother-premature newborn infant dyads Thailand	During their first visit with infants in the NICU, all mothers demonstrated most attachment behaviors assessed with investigator-developed Maternal Behaviors Observation Guidelines. Guidelines were used for verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

HOME, Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment; PCI, Parent–Child Interaction; SD, standard deviation.