TABLE 2.
Income and Education Disparities in Child and Adult Health: United States, 1988–2007
| Family Income as Percentage of FPLa |
Educational Attainmentb |
||||||||||
| Health Indicator and Population Subgroup | < 100% FPL, % or %c (95% CI) | 100%–199% FPL, % or %c (95% CI) | 200%–299% FPL, % or %c (95% CI) | 300%–399% FPL, % or %c (95% CI) | ≥ 400% FPL, % or %c (95% CI) | Trend,d P | Not High School Graduate, % or %c (95% CI) | High School Graduate, % or %c (95% CI) | Some College, % or %c (95% CI) | College Graduate, % or %c (95% CI) | Trend,d P |
| US populatione | |||||||||||
| All | 12.5 | 18.0 | 17.1 | 13.9 | 38.5 | 16.0 | 30.0 | 27.0 | 27.0 | ||
| Black | 24.5 | 23.0 | 17.7 | 12.1 | 22.7 | 20.7 | 33.9 | 28.6 | 16.8 | ||
| Hispanic | 21.5 | 29.1 | 19.8 | 11.4 | 18.2 | 40.1 | 27.8 | 19.8 | 12.3 | ||
| White | 8.2 | 14.7 | 16.6 | 14.8 | 45.8 | 11.1 | 30.6 | 28.3 | 30.0 | ||
| Infant mortality (mothers aged ≥ 20 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 7.8 (7.7, 7.9) | 7.4 (7.3, 7.5) | 6.0 (5.9, 6.1) | 4.2 (4.1, 4.3) | .084 | ||||||
| Black | 15.1 (14.6, 15.6) | 13.4 (13.1, 13.7) | 12.1 (11.8, 12.5) | 10.5 (10.1, 10.9) | .028 | ||||||
| Hispanic | 5.2 (5.1, 5.4) | 5.2 (5.0, 5.4) | 4.9 (4.7, 5.1) | 4.0 (3.7, 4.3) | .228 | ||||||
| White | 9.2 (8.9, 9.5) | 6.4 (6.3, 6.5) | 4.8 (4.7, 4.9) | 3.8 (3.7, 3.9) | .012 | ||||||
| Health status not excellent or very good (age 0–17 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 30.9 (29.8, 32.0) | 22.7 (21.8, 23.6) | 15.4 (14.6, 16.2) | 11.8 (11.1, 12.6) | 8.2 (7.7, 8.6) | .009 | 32.1 (30.9, 33.3) | 23.6 (22.8, 24.4) | 16.5 (15.9, 17.1) | 8.1 (7.8, 8.5) | .013 |
| Black | 33.0 (30.8, 35.3) | 26.9 (24.8, 29.1) | 21.3 (19.2, 23.6) | 17.6 (14.9, 20.7) | 14.7 (12.7, 16.9) | .005 | 33.5 (30.5, 36.5) | 30.2 (28.1, 32.2) | 23.7 (22.2, 25.2) | 15.4 (13.6, 17.2) | .068 |
| Hispanic | 35.0 (33.2, 36.8) | 27.4 (25.9, 28.9) | 21.4 (19.8, 23.2) | 17.2 (14.8, 19.9) | 12.3 (10.5, 14.3) | .003 | 33.8 (32.2, 35.3) | 26.7 (25.2, 28.2) | 22.4 (21.0, 23.8) | 13.6 (12.0, 15.2) | .027 |
| White | 26.3 (24.6, 28.2) | 18.7 (17.5, 19.9) | 12.2 (11.4, 13.2) | 9.9 (9.1, 10.8) | 7.0 (6.5, 7.5) | .016 | 27.7 (25.1, 30.3) | 20.2 (19.2, 21.3) | 12.9 (12.3, 13.6) | 6.4 (6.0, 6.7) | .012 |
| Activity limited due to chronic disease (age 0–17 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 9.3 (8.8, 9.8) | 8.1 (7.7, 8.6) | 6.9 (6.5, 7.4) | 6.3 (5.8, 6.8) | 5.1 (4.7, 5.4) | .001 | 7.7 (7.2, 8.2) | 7.8 (7.4, 8.2) | 7.8 (7.5, 8.1) | 5.3 (5.0, 5.6) | .271 |
| Black | 10.1 (9.1, 11.1) | 8.6 (7.6, 9.7) | 6.7 (5.5, 8.1) | 5.8 (4.7, 7.3) | 5.1 (4.1, 6.2) | .005 | 10.9 (9.6, 12.3) | 8.6 (7.7, 9.5) | 7.5 (6.8, 8.2) | 6.0 (5.0, 7.1) | .002 |
| Hispanic | 6.1 (5.5, 6.7) | 5.2 (4.7, 5.7) | 4.8 (4.1, 5.7) | 5.2 (4.3, 6.4) | 5.9 (4.9, 7.1) | .686 | 4.6 (4.1, 5.1) | 6.2 (5.6, 6.9) | 5.9 (5.4, 6.4) | 5.8 (4.9, 6.7) | .152 |
| White | 12.3 (11.3, 13.4) | 9.9 (9.1, 10.6) | 7.6 (7.1, 8.2) | 6.6 (6.0, 7.3) | 5.1 (4.7, 5.5) | .005 | 12.9 (11.6, 14.4) | 8.3 (7.8, 8.9) | 8.5 (8.1, 8.9) | 5.3 (5.0, 5.6) | .047 |
| Healthy Eating Index (age 2–19 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 63.7 (62.6, 64.7) | 63.6 (62.5, 64.7) | 64.0 (62.8, 65.2) | 65.8 (64.5, 67.2) | 67.0 (65.8, 68.1) | .017 | 62.7 (61.9, 63.4) | 63.4 (62.4, 64.5) | 65.0 (63.8, 66.1) | 67.8 (66.6, 69.1) | .093 |
| Black | 63.5 (62.7, 64.3) | 63.0 (61.7, 64.3) | 64.7 (63.4, 65.9) | 63.7 (61.7, 65.8) | 65.7 (64.3, 67.1) | .068 | 62.3 (61.4, 63.2) | 63.9 (63.2, 64.6) | 64.2 (63.5, 64.8) | 65.7 (63.5, 67.9) | .017 |
| Mexican American | 65.8 (64.6, 67.0) | 65.0 (63.8, 66.2) | 65.0 (63.5, 66.5) | 65.1 (63.0, 67.3) | 64.9 (62.4, 67.4) | .179 | 65.5 (64.6, 66.4) | 64.0 (63.0, 65.0) | 65.6 (63.7, 67.5) | 66.1 (63.1, 69.2) | .616 |
| White | 62.8 (60.6, 64.9) | 63.5 (62.1, 64.9) | 63.8 (62.3, 65.4) | 66.2 (64.5, 67.9) | 67.1 (65.9, 68.4) | .006 | 60.9 (59.6, 62.2) | 63.2 (61.8, 64.6) | 65.0 (63.4, 66.7) | 68.1 (66.7, 69.5) | .026 |
| Sedentary behavior (age 12–19 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 18.3 (14.9, 22.2) | 17.4 (14.9, 20.1) | 10.6 (7.4, 15.0) | 8.9 (6.4, 12.4) | 6.3 (4.6, 8.6) | .007 | 20.0 (16.8, 23.7) | 11.7 (9.0, 15.0) | 10.1 (8.0, 12.8) | 7.4 (5.3, 10.3) | .013 |
| Black | 20.0 (16.2, 24.5) | 23.6 (20.2, 27.5) | 17.7 (13.9, 22.4) | 17.1 (12.4, 23.2) | 14.5 (10.7, 19.4) | .103 | 23.8 (19.0, 29.2) | 20.0 (16.1, 24.6) | 14.2 (10.9, 18.3) | 14.2 (10.1, 19.6) | .086 |
| Mexican American | 19.7 (16.5, 23.4) | 17.8 (13.9, 22.6) | 14.3 (10.0, 20.0) | 13.1 (7.4, 21.9) | 10.4 (5.7, 18.2) | .002 | 19.7 (16.7, 23.1) | 21.0 (15.7, 27.6) | 13.3 (9.7, 18.1) | 10.7 (5.7, 19.0) | .162 |
| White | 17.1 (11.3, 25.1) | 15.6 (11.8, 20.3) | 8.5 (4.8, 14.4) | 7.6 (4.8, 11.8) | 5.4 (3.5, 8.3) | .017 | 18.0 (11.3, 27.5) | 8.7 (5.7, 13.0) | 9.2 (6.7, 12.4) | 6.7 (4.4, 9.9) | .113 |
| Life expectancy (at age 25) | |||||||||||
| All | 49.2 (48.8, 49.7) | 51.4 (51.1, 51.8) | 53.8 (53.6, 54.1) | 55.7 (55.5, 56.0) | .020 | 50.7 (50.3, 51.0) | 53.9 (53.6, 54.1) | 55.0 (54.7, 55.3) | 56.4 (56.1, 56.7) | .001 | |
| Black | 45.5 (44.5, 46.5) | 48.0 (46.9, 49.1) | 50.7 (49.9, 51.6) | 52.6 (51.5, 53.7) | .025 | 47.0 (46.0, 47.9) | 49.9 (49.0, 50.8) | 50.9 (49.4, 52.3) | 52.3 (50.7, 53.8) | .001 | |
| Hispanic | 53.6 (52.6, 54.6) | 53.9 (53.0, 54.8) | 56.7 (55.9, 57.5) | 56.5 (55.4, 57.7) | .140 | 54.5 (53.8, 55.1) | 56.4 (55.4, 57.4) | 55.5 (53.9, 57.1) | 57.4 (55.7, 59.0) | .066 | |
| White | 49.0 (48.4, 49.6) | 51.4 (51.0, 51.8) | 53.8 (53.6, 54.1) | 55.8 (55.6, 56.0) | .022 | 50.1 (49.7, 50.6) | 54.1 (53.8, 54.3) | 55.2 (54.9, 55.5) | 56.5 (56.2, 56.8) | .011 | |
| Health status not excellent or very good (age 25–74 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 77.4 (76.7, 78.1) | 54.6 (54.2, 55.0) | 44.9 (44.5, 45.3) | 30.0 (29.7, 30.3) | .002 | ||||||
| Black | 72.7 (70.7, 74.6) | 62.1 (61.0, 63.3) | 54.7 (53.5, 56.0) | 43.6 (42.2, 45.0) | .023 | ||||||
| Hispanic | 84.2 (83.1, 85.2) | 68.2 (66.8, 69.5) | 55.6 (54.0, 57.3) | 42.9 (41.3, 44.5) | .012 | ||||||
| American Indian/Alaskan Native | 70.6 (64.2, 77.0) | 60.9 (57.3, 64.4) | 57.5 (54.1, 60.9) | 41.7 (37.4, 46.0) | .070 | ||||||
| Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander | 69.8 (59.7, 80.0) | 54.5 (46.0, 63.1) | 45.4 (38.2, 52.6) | 36.0 (28.8, 43.2) | .004 | ||||||
| Asian | 70.3 (60.8, 79.7) | 59.5 (54.6, 64.4) | 48.6 (44.0, 53.1) | 39.5 (37.5, 41.5) | .015 | ||||||
| White | 69.4 (68.4, 70.4) | 50.0 (49.5, 50.4) | 41.4 (41.0, 41.8) | 26.7 (26.4, 27.0) | .004 | ||||||
| Activity limited due to chronic disease (age ≥ 25 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 32.2 (31.3, 33.1) | 22.4 (21.9, 23.0) | 16.0 (15.6, 16.5) | 12.9 (12.4, 13.4) | 9.4 (9.1, 9.6) | .014 | 23.5 (22.9, 24.1) | 16.1 (15.8, 16.4) | 15.0 (14.7, 15.4) | 9.3 (9.0, 9.7) | .017 |
| Black | 36.2 (34.6, 37.9) | 23.9 (22.7, 25.1) | 16.1 (14.9, 17.4) | 13.3 (11.9, 14.9) | 9.5 (8.6, 10.5) | .020 | 29.7 (28.3, 31.2) | 19.4 (18.5, 20.4) | 17.2 (16.2, 18.2) | 11.1 (10.1, 12.2) | .004 |
| Hispanic | 22.8 (21.6, 24.0) | 15.0 (14.2, 15.9) | 12.1 (11.1, 13.0) | 10.1 (8.6, 11.8) | 8.1 (7.2, 9.1) | .030 | 15.5 (14.9, 16.1) | 13.2 (12.4, 14.1) | 12.5 (11.2, 13.8) | 10.1 (9.0, 11.4) | .010 |
| White | 36.4 (35.0, 37.7) | 25.2 (24.4, 26.0) | 17.2 (16.7, 17.7) | 13.5 (12.9, 14.1) | 9.6 (9.3, 9.9) | .015 | 28.3 (27.3, 29.3) | 16.3 (15.9, 16.7) | 15.2 (14.9, 15.6) | 9.4 (9.0, 9.8) | .025 |
| Coronary heart disease (age ≥ 25 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 16.8 (16.2, 17.5) | 14.2 (13.7, 14.8) | 12.5 (12.0, 12.9) | 12.3 (11.8, 12.9) | 11.5 (11.1, 11.8) | .041 | 14.6 (14.1, 15.0) | 12.4 (12.1, 12.7) | 13.5 (13.2, 13.9) | 11.1 (10.8, 11.5) | .179 |
| Black | 16.9 (15.6, 18.4) | 12.8 (11.7, 13.9) | 10.1 (8.8, 11.7) | 8.2 (6.7, 10.1) | 8.9 (7.5, 10.6) | .049 | 14.5 (13.4, 15.7) | 10.6 (9.9, 11.4) | 11.7 (10.5, 13.0) | 9.8 (8.5, 11.3) | .141 |
| Hispanic | 12.7 (11.6, 13.8) | 10.2 (9.3, 11.1) | 8.1 (6.8, 9.7) | 8.0 (6.4, 10.0) | 7.3 (5.7, 9.3) | .032 | 9.6 (8.9, 10.3) | 9.5 (8.4, 10.7) | 11.1 (9.3, 13.2) | 8.9 (7.4, 10.5) | .951 |
| White | 18.4 (17.4, 19.4) | 15.5 (14.8, 16.3) | 13.2 (12.7, 13.8) | 13.1 (12.5, 13.7) | 11.8 (11.5, 12.2) | .031 | 16.9 (16.2, 17.6) | 12.9 (12.5, 13.3) | 14.0 (13.6, 14.4) | 11.4 (11.0, 11.8) | .136 |
| Diabetes (age 20–64 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 11.3 (8.6, 14.8) | 10.1 (7.4, 13.6) | 9.9 (6.7, 14.4) | 5.8 (3.8, 8.7) | 4.5 (3.2, 6.3) | .006 | 10.0 (8.1, 12.2) | 6.9 (5.0, 9.5) | 7.3 (5.5, 9.7) | 4.1 (2.9, 5.8) | .035 |
| Black | 17.0 (11.1, 25.1) | 10.9 (6.7, 17.4) | 12.3 (7.5, 19.5) | 9.5 (4.0, 21.0) | 7.7 (4.3, 13.3) | .045 | 15.8 (11.4, 21.5) | 9.8 (6.5, 14.3) | 10.6 (7.1, 15.5) | 7.3 (4.0, 12.9) | .057 |
| Mexican American | 15.3 (11.1, 20.8) | 7.7 (5.2, 11.3) | 9.8 (5.4, 16.9) | 8.8 (4.3, 17.0) | 9.5 (5.0, 17.2) | .586 | 11.1 (8.0, 15.3) | 6.7 (4.0, 11.0) | 12.9 (5.7, 26.7) | 8.1 (3.7, 16.6) | .401 |
| White | 8.8 (5.7, 13.3) | 10.4 (7.0, 15.3) | 9.2 (5.0, 16.4) | 5.0 (3.0, 8.2) | 4.2 (2.8, 6.1) | .031 | 6.9 (4.7, 10.0) | 6.7 (4.6, 9.7) | 6.7 (4.7, 9.3) | 3.8 (2.5, 5.7) | .192 |
| Obesity (age ≥ 20 y) | |||||||||||
| All | 35.6 (32.9, 38.3) | 34.6 (32.1, 37.3) | 35.4 (32.1, 38.7) | 31.2 (27.7, 35.0) | 26.7 (24.4, 29.2) | .018 | 34.7 (31.9, 37.7) | 33.6 (31.6, 35.6) | 32.5 (29.9, 35.2) | 24.9 (22.4, 27.6) | .182 |
| Black | 39.9 (34.8, 45.3) | 42.5 (38.2, 47.0) | 47.4 (41.3, 53.5) | 36.9 (30.9, 43.3) | 37.3 (32.8, 42.1) | .406 | 41.9 (39.0, 44.9) | 42.1 (37.3, 47.1) | 40.3 (36.7, 44.0) | 38.2 (32.9, 43.7) | .166 |
| Mexican American | 34.6 (30.1, 39.5) | 31.0 (26.6, 35.7) | 34.9 (30.2, 39.9) | 38.4 (33.1, 44.1) | 36.5 (31.1, 42.2) | .283 | 34.0 (30.7, 37.4) | 34.1 (28.5, 40.2) | 33.7 (28.1, 39.9) | 31.9 (24.6, 40.2) | .336 |
| White | 34.2 (30.7, 37.9) | 33.6 (30.0, 37.4) | 33.4 (29.3, 37.8) | 30.3 (26.2, 34.7) | 25.7 (23.2, 28.3) | .010 | 31.5 (27.1, 36.2) | 32.5 (30.2, 34.9) | 31.3 (28.4, 34.3) | 23.8 (21.1, 26.6) | .247 |
Note. FPL = federal poverty level.
a
Income categories for life expectancy were as follows: ≤ 100%, 101%–200%, 201%–400%, and > 400%.
b
Education categories for infant mortality were as follows: < 12 years, 12 years, 13–15 years, and ≥ 16 years.
c
Except for the following: infant mortality (per 1000 live births), Healthy Eating Index (average score), and life expectancy (years).
d
By the F test.
e
Racial/ethnic categories for US population percentages, family income as follows: all combined; Black, non-Hispanic; Hispanic, of any race; White, non-Hispanic. Data source: Current Population Survey, 2008 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.69 Racial/ethnic categories for US population percentages, educational attainment: all combined; Black or African American; Hispanic or Latino; White, non-Hispanic or Latino. Data source: 2005–2007 American Community Survey, 2005-2007.70