Table 1.

Specialized pollination guilds documented in southern Africa.

pollinator(s) of guild	tongue/bill length (mm)	plant species in guild	plant families	habitat, distribution	convergent floral traits	references
tanglewing flies (Nemestrinidae)
Moegistorhynchus longirostris	40–90	20	Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Geraniaceae	sandplains, Western Cape lowlands	cream or pink flower colour, nectar guides, very long corolla tube, early summer (September–November) flowering time	Manning & Goldblatt (1997), Johnson & Steiner (1997), Pauw et al. (2009)
Stenobasipteron wiedmannii	19–30	19	Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Acanthaceae, Balsaminaceae, Gesneriaceae, Lamiaceae	forest patches in eastern region	pale blue-pink flower colour, nectar guides, long corolla tubes, autumn (February–April) flowering time	Goldblatt & Manning (2000), Potgieter & Edwards (2005)
Prosoeca ganglbaueri	20–50	20	Amaryllidaceae, Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Scrophulariaceae	Drakensberg mountains	pink or cream flower colour, nectar guides, long corolla tube, autumn (January–April) flowering time	Goldblatt & Manning (2000), Anderson & Johnson (2009)
Prosoeca peringueyi	25–40	18	Iridaceae, Geraniaceae	mainly granite soils, central Namaqualand highlands	violet-pink flower colour, nectar guides, long corolla tubes, early spring (July–September) flowering time	Manning & Goldblatt (1996)
Prosoeca longipennis	38–40	5	Iridaceae, Geraniaceae	Southern Cape	autumn (March–April) flowering time	Goldblatt & Manning (2000)
Prosoeca sp.	32–48	6	Iridaceae	dolerite and clay soils, Nieuwoudtville plateau	violet-blue flower colour, spring (August–September) flowering time	Goldblatt & Manning (2000)
horseflies (Tabanidae)
Philoliche aethiopica horsefly	10–25	15	Amaryllidaceae, Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Scrophulariaceae	eastern region	pink flower colour, long corolla tube, summer (November–March) flowering time	Johnson (2000), Johnson & Morita (2006), S. D. Johnson & S. Morita (2009, unpublished data)
Philoliche rostrata	21–27	20	Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Geraniaceae	southwestern Cape mountains	pink or cream flower colour, nectar guides, long corolla tube, summer (October–January) flowering time	Goldblatt & Manning (2000)
Philoliche gulosa	18–33	13	Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Geraniaceae	Western Cape and Namaqualand mountains	pale cream or blue flower colour, nectar guides, long corolla tube, spring (July–November) flowering time	Goldblatt & Manning (2000)
bee-flies (Bombyliidae)
Megapalpus capensis	10	6	Asteraceae, Geraniaceae	Western Cape and Namaqualand	raised dark spots, short corolla tubes	Johnson & Midgley (2001), Ellis & Johnson (2009)
oil-bees (Melittidae)
Rediviva peringueyi	N/A	20	Orchidaceae, Scrophulariaceae	clay flats, southwestern Cape	greyish green flower colour, open or bisaccate, oil production, no scent or soapy scent, August/September flowering time	K. E. Steiner (2009, unpublished data), Steiner 1989), Pauw (2005, 2006), Whitehead & Steiner (2001), Steiner & Cruz (2009)
Rediviva gigas	N/A	19	Orchidaceae, Scrophulariaceae	montane, southwestern Cape	yellow to greenish yellow, magenta to pink and white flower colour, open or pouched, oil production, rarely nectar, October–November flowering time	Whitehead & Steiner (2001), Steiner & Cruz (2009), K. E. Steiner (2009, unpublished data), Manning & Goldblatt (2002)
Rediviva longimanus	N/A	8	Orchidaceae, Scrophulariaceae	Western Cape	greyish magenta, white or cream flower colour, soapy or no scent, August/September	Whitehead & Steiner (2001), K. E. Steiner (2009, unpublished data)
Rediviva nitida and R. intermedia	N/A	11	Scrophulariaceae	Western and Northern Cape	greyish magenta, pink, yellow, oil production, August/September	Whitehead & Steiner (2001), K. E. Steiner (2009, unpublished data)
Rediviva neliana, R. brunnea and R. pallidula	N/A	29	Orchidaceae, Scrophulariaceae	Drakensberg mountains	deep floral spurs, oil production, December–March flowering pink to red, white	Steiner & Whitehead (1988), Steiner & Whitehead (1990), Whitehead et al. (2008)
Rediviva colorata	N/A	6	Orchidaceae	forest patches, Drakensberg mountains	floral sacs or spurs, flower colour white, January–March flowering	Steiner(1989), Whitehead et al. (2008)
Rediviva rufocincta	N/A	5	Scrophulariaceae	Drakensberg mountains	yellow or white pouched flowers, oil production, December–January flowering	Manning & Brothers (1986), Steiner & Whitehead (1991), Whitehead et al. (2008)
spider-hunting wasps (Pompilidae)
Hemipepsis spp.	10	60	Apocynaceae, Orchidaceae, Hyacinthaceae	summer-rainfall	dull flower colour, open shape, bitter nectar, pungent scent	Ollerton et al. (2003), Shuttleworth & Johnson (2006, 2009a,b)
butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera)
mountain pride butterfly (Aeropetes tulbaghia)	28–35	21	Amaryllidaceae, Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Crassulaceae,	Cape and Drakensberg mountains	red flower colour, large flowers, narrow corolla tube, late summer flowering time	Johnson & Bond (1994)
Convolvulus hawkmoth (Agrius convolvuli)	90–110	25	Amaryllidaceae, Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Capparaceae, Rubiaceae	eastern region	pale flowers, very long corolla tube, evening scent	Alexandersson & Johnson (2002), S. D. Johnson & R. Raguso (2009, unpublished data)
birds
Cape sugarbird (Promerops cafer)	30–36	>20	Proteaceae	Cape mountains	brush-like inflorescences, unscented, copious dilute nectar	Rebelo et al. (1984)
orange-breasted sunbird (Anthobaphes violacea)	18–23	>66	Amaryllidaceae, Ericaceae, Iridaceae	Cape mountains	curved corolla tube, unscented, copious dilute nectar	Rebelo et al. (1984)
malachite sunbird (Nectarinia famosa)	29–34	>44	Iridaceae, Amaryllidaceae	Cape mountains	very long curved corolla tube, unscented, copious dilute nectar	Geerts & Pauw (in press)
rodents
Acomys and Aethomys rodents	20	30	Colchicaceae, Hyacinthaceae, Proteaceae	Cape floral region	flower position, scent, anther–stigma distance	Wiens et al. (1983), Johnson et al. (2001), Kleizen et al. (2008)