Table 2. Summary of pesticide detections in pollen samples from North American honey bee colonies.
| Pollen Pesticide* | Class# | Detects | Samples | % | Detections (ppb) | |||||||
| High | Low | Median | 90%tile | 95%tile | Mean§ | SEM§ | LOD† | |||||
| Fluvalinate | PYR | 309 | 350 | 88.3 | 2670.0 | 1.6 | 40.2 | 186.8 | 323.0 | 95.1 | 12.6 | 1.0 |
| Coumaphos | OP | 263 | 350 | 75.1 | 5828.0 | 1.0 | 13.1 | 518.4 | 892.0 | 180.4 | 33.0 | 1.0 |
| Chlorpyrifos | OP | 153 | 350 | 43.7 | 830.0 | 0.1 | 4.4 | 140.4 | 226.5 | 53.3 | 10.6 | 0.1 |
| Chlorothalonil | FUNG | 148 | 280 | 52.9 | 98900.0 | 1.1 | 35.0 | 9939.0 | 18765.0 | 3014.8 | 880.9 | 1.0 |
| Pendimethalin | HERB | 113 | 247 | 45.7 | 1730.0 | 1.1 | 13.4 | 72.9 | 129.8 | 44.6 | 15.7 | 1.0 |
| Endosulfan I | CYC | 98 | 350 | 28.0 | 76.7 | 0.4 | 4.2 | 33.9 | 47.2 | 10.9 | 1.5 | 0.1 |
| Endosulfan sulfate | CYC | 92 | 350 | 26.3 | 35.0 | 0.2 | 2.2 | 9.2 | 11.3 | 4.3 | 0.6 | 0.1 |
| DMPF (amitraz) | FORM | 77 | 247 | 31.2 | 1117.0 | 6.1 | 75.0 | 360.2 | 615.0 | 147.9 | 23.5 | 4.0 |
| Atrazine | S HERB | 71 | 350 | 20.3 | 49.0 | 4.2 | 8.9 | 27.0 | 35.2 | 13.6 | 1.1 | 1.0 |
| Endosulfan II | CYC | 70 | 350 | 20.0 | 67.7 | 0.1 | 3.8 | 24.7 | 39.6 | 9.1 | 1.6 | 0.1 |
| Fenpropathrin | PYR | 63 | 350 | 18.0 | 170.0 | 0.4 | 7.0 | 24.6 | 60.8 | 15.1 | 3.3 | 0.4 |
| Azoxystrobin | S FUNG | 53 | 350 | 15.1 | 107.0 | 1.0 | 10.2 | 58.9 | 68.1 | 21.0 | 3.3 | 1.0 |
| Metolachlor | PS HERB | 52 | 350 | 14.9 | 103.0 | 2.6 | 8.1 | 19.4 | 44.6 | 13.4 | 2.5 | 2.0 |
| Captan | FUNG | 45 | 350 | 12.9 | 10000.0 | 16.0 | 103.0 | 571.8 | 663.2 | 433.5 | 219.9 | 10.0 |
| Esfenvalerate | PYR | 41 | 350 | 11.7 | 59.6 | 1.0 | 3.3 | 10.0 | 47.5 | 7.8 | 2.2 | 0.5 |
| Carbaryl | PS CARB | 38 | 350 | 10.9 | 1010.0 | 13.6 | 36.7 | 269.5 | 602.9 | 117.1 | 36.5 | 5.0 |
| Cyhalothrin | PYR | 38 | 350 | 10.9 | 28.0 | 0.1 | 1.7 | 4.3 | 18.2 | 3.4 | 0.9 | 0.1 |
| THPI (captan) | PS FUNG | 35 | 247 | 14.2 | 363.0 | 60.1 | 227.0 | 312.0 | 342.0 | 205.8 | 15.1 | 30.0 |
| Methoxyfenozide | IGR | 29 | 350 | 8.3 | 128.0 | 0.4 | 22.3 | 96.4 | 111.2 | 35.0 | 7.1 | 0.4 |
| Dicofol | OC | 28 | 350 | 8.0 | 143.0 | 0.4 | 8.1 | 60.3 | 85.7 | 23.2 | 6.4 | 0.4 |
| Trifloxystrobin | PS FUNG | 27 | 350 | 7.7 | 264.0 | 0.6 | 10.3 | 96.2 | 168.4 | 34.1 | 11.9 | 0.5 |
| Tebufenozide | IGR | 27 | 350 | 7.7 | 58.4 | 2.0 | 12.5 | 28.9 | 30.0 | 14.8 | 2.4 | 2.0 |
| Diazinon | OP | 27 | 350 | 7.7 | 29.0 | 1.0 | 4.6 | 25.6 | 27.7 | 9.2 | 1.8 | 1.0 |
| Cypermethrin | PYR | 25 | 350 | 7.1 | 49.0 | 1.6 | 4.6 | 27.8 | 44.7 | 10.8 | 2.6 | 1.0 |
| Cyfluthrin | PYR | 24 | 350 | 6.9 | 33.6 | 1.1 | 5.1 | 9.9 | 9.9 | 6.7 | 1.3 | 1.0 |
| Azinphos methyl | OP | 23 | 350 | 6.6 | 643.0 | 3.9 | 22.0 | 104.7 | 615.3 | 86.2 | 37.1 | 3.0 |
| Aldicarb sulfoxide | S CARB | 21 | 350 | 6.0 | 1245.0 | 22.0 | 327.0 | 1039.0 | 1146.0 | 493.7 | 85.7 | 20.0 |
| Phosmet | OP | 20 | 350 | 5.7 | 418.0 | 3.7 | 38.0 | 284.2 | 351.7 | 110.0 | 28.3 | 2.0 |
| Thiacloprid | S NEO | 19 | 350 | 5.4 | 115.0 | 1.7 | 14.0 | 42.9 | 108.7 | 23.8 | 7.2 | 1.0 |
| Pyrimethanil | FUNG | 19 | 350 | 5.4 | 83.0 | 2.0 | 8.3 | 67.6 | 82.2 | 18.5 | 6.0 | 2.0 |
| Norflurazon | S HERB | 18 | 350 | 5.1 | 108.0 | 2.8 | 23.5 | 54.3 | 66.9 | 29.7 | 6.0 | 1.0 |
| 1-Naphthol (carbaryl) | S CARB | 18 | 350 | 5.1 | 85.5 | 3.6 | 9.7 | 45.6 | 58.7 | 20.9 | 5.2 | 2.0 |
| Metribuzin | S HERB | 18 | 350 | 5.1 | 44.0 | 1.0 | 3.3 | 10.1 | 15.6 | 6.3 | 2.3 | 1.0 |
| Bifenthrin | PYR | 18 | 350 | 5.1 | 12.6 | 0.7 | 3.0 | 7.1 | 7.6 | 3.9 | 0.7 | 0.4 |
| Carbendazim | S FUNG | 16 | 350 | 4.6 | 149.0 | 1.5 | 4.5 | 46.0 | 89.0 | 18.8 | 9.7 | 1.0 |
| Cyprodinil | S FUNG | 15 | 350 | 4.3 | 344.0 | 5.3 | 18.7 | 246.8 | 286.6 | 90.2 | 29.1 | 5.0 |
| Myclobutanil | S FUNG | 14 | 350 | 4.0 | 981.0 | 4.4 | 72.8 | 565.6 | 798.4 | 192.3 | 78.3 | 2.0 |
| Propiconazole | S FUNG | 14 | 350 | 4.0 | 361.0 | 3.1 | 68.0 | 203.2 | 259.6 | 110.3 | 27.3 | 3.0 |
| Fenbuconazole | S FUNG | 14 | 247 | 5.7 | 264.0 | 11.0 | 55.4 | 174.9 | 217.8 | 80.6 | 19.9 | 6.0 |
| Coumaphos oxon | OP | 14 | 280 | 5.0 | 89.0 | 5.4 | 13.5 | 38.2 | 52.2 | 21.2 | 5.9 | 5.0 |
| Methidathion | OP | 14 | 350 | 4.0 | 32.7 | 7.8 | 21.0 | 31.7 | 32.3 | 21.6 | 2.1 | 1.0 |
| Malathion | OP | 13 | 350 | 3.7 | 61.0 | 0.9 | 5.9 | 16.2 | 35.2 | 10.4 | 4.4 | 1.0 |
| Aldicarb sulfone | S CARB | 12 | 350 | 3.4 | 97.2 | 17.0 | 43.8 | 87.7 | 93.2 | 46.8 | 7.8 | 10.0 |
| Simazine | S HERB | 12 | 350 | 3.4 | 54.0 | 5.2 | 22.0 | 36.9 | 44.7 | 22.4 | 4.3 | 5.0 |
| Pronamide | S HERB | 11 | 350 | 3.1 | 378.0 | 17.7 | 71.0 | 355.0 | 366.5 | 122.9 | 38.7 | 1.0 |
| Indoxacarb | INS | 11 | 350 | 3.1 | 330.0 | 10.0 | 102.0 | 175.0 | 252.5 | 118.2 | 24.7 | 10.0 |
| Acetamiprid | S NEO | 11 | 350 | 3.1 | 134.0 | 14.0 | 57.0 | 101.0 | 117.5 | 59.3 | 11.8 | 5.0 |
| Deltamethrin | PYR | 11 | 350 | 3.1 | 91.0 | 28.0 | 66.0 | 88.5 | 88.4 | 66.6 | 6.2 | 20.0 |
| Imidacloprid | S NEO | 10 | 350 | 2.9 | 206.0 | 6.2 | 20.5 | 63.0 | 41.3 | 39.0 | 19.0 | 2.0 |
| Fenhexamid | FUNG | 9 | 247 | 3.6 | 129.0 | 5.8 | 28.0 | 53.8 | 96.1 | 34.4 | 12.3 | 5.0 |
| Permethrin | PYR | 9 | 350 | 2.6 | 92.0 | 9.6 | 28.7 | 89.6 | 73.8 | 40.1 | 10.7 | 10.0 |
| Trifluralin | HERB | 9 | 247 | 3.6 | 14.4 | 1.0 | 1.9 | 10.9 | 12.6 | 3.9 | 1.6 | 1.0 |
| Tebuthiuron | S HERB | 8 | 350 | 2.3 | 48.0 | 1.6 | 16.2 | 34.7 | 40.4 | 17.9 | 5.8 | 1.0 |
| Thiabendazole | S FUNG | 8 | 350 | 2.3 | 5.6 | 1.4 | 2.4 | 4.8 | 5.2 | 3.0 | 0.5 | 1.0 |
| Dimethomorph | S FUNG | 7 | 247 | 2.8 | 166.0 | 17.2 | 25.2 | 95.1 | 142.4 | 46.9 | 20.2 | 15.0 |
| Oxyfluorfen | HERB | 7 | 350 | 2.0 | 4.5 | 0.5 | 1.8 | 3.1 | 3.8 | 2.0 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
| Difenoconazole | S FUNG | 6 | 350 | 1.7 | 214.1 | 48.3 | 122.4 | 184.8 | 199.4 | 129.8 | 22.2 | 10.0 |
| Famoxadone | FUNG | 6 | 350 | 1.7 | 141.0 | 73.5 | 95.7 | 125.5 | 133.3 | 98.3 | 10.9 | 20.0 |
| Diphenylamine | FUNG | 6 | 103 | 5.8 | 32.0 | 3.6 | 10.5 | 24.5 | 28.3 | 13.2 | 4.3 | 2.0 |
| Hexachlorobenzene | FUNG | 6 | 350 | 1.7 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
| Pyridaben | MITI | 5 | 350 | 1.4 | 26.6 | 10.9 | 19.0 | 25.6 | 26.1 | 18.8 | 3.0 | 1.0 |
| Diflubenzuron | IGR | 4 | 350 | 1.1 | 128.0 | 15.0 | 78.5 | 122.0 | 125.0 | 75.0 | 26.1 | 10.0 |
| Oxamyl | S CARB | 4 | 350 | 1.1 | 43.0 | 20.0 | 32.5 | 40.3 | 41.7 | 32.0 | 4.7 | 5.0 |
| Allethrin | PYR | 4 | 350 | 1.1 | 11.0 | 6.6 | 7.9 | 10.2 | 10.6 | 8.3 | 0.9 | 1.0 |
| Vinclozolin | FUNG | 4 | 350 | 1.1 | 4.1 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 3.2 | 3.6 | 1.8 | 0.8 | 1.0 |
| Boscalid | S FUNG | 3 | 350 | 0.9 | 962.0 | 1.4 | 12.0 | 772.0 | 11.5 | 325.1 | 318.4 | 1.0 |
| Potasan (coumaphos) | OP | 3 | 247 | 1.2 | 160.0 | 61.5 | 138.0 | 155.6 | 157.8 | 119.8 | 29.9 | 10.0 |
| Pyrethrins | PYR | 3 | 350 | 0.9 | 61.5 | 27.0 | 35.0 | 56.2 | 61.5 | 41.2 | 10.4 | 20.0 |
| Tebuconazole | S FUNG | 3 | 350 | 0.9 | 34.0 | 6.4 | 18.0 | 30.8 | 32.4 | 19.5 | 8.0 | 3.0 |
| Prallethrin | PYR | 3 | 350 | 0.9 | 7.6 | 4.7 | 7.3 | 7.5 | 7.6 | 6.5 | 0.9 | 4.0 |
| Carfentrazone ethyl | PS HERB | 3 | 350 | 0.9 | 2.5 | 1.5 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.1 | 0.3 | 1.0 |
| Propanil | HERB | 2 | 350 | 0.6 | 358.0 | 265.0 | 311.5 | 348.7 | 353.4 | 311.5 | 46.5 | 10.0 |
| Pyraclostrobin | FUNG | 2 | 350 | 0.6 | 265.0 | 26.6 | 145.8 | 241.2 | 26.6 | 145.8 | 119.2 | 1.0 |
| DDT p,p' | OC | 2 | 350 | 0.6 | 35.6 | 6.0 | 20.8 | 32.6 | 34.1 | 20.8 | 14.8 | 2.0 |
| Fluridone | S HERB | 2 | 350 | 0.6 | 24.0 | 5.8 | 14.9 | 22.2 | 22.2 | 14.9 | 9.1 | 5.0 |
| DDD p,p' | OC | 2 | 350 | 0.6 | 13.4 | 11.8 | 12.6 | 13.2 | 13.3 | 12.6 | 0.8 | 4.0 |
| 4,4-dibromobenzophenone | MITI | 2 | 247 | 0.8 | 10.8 | 2.2 | 6.5 | 9.9 | 10.4 | 6.5 | 4.3 | 2.0 |
| Carbofuran, 3-hydroxy | S CARB | 2 | 350 | 0.6 | 4.6 | 3.6 | 4.1 | 4.5 | 4.6 | 4.1 | 0.5 | 3.0 |
| DDE p,p' | OC | 2 | 350 | 0.6 | 4.3 | 3.3 | 3.8 | 4.2 | 4.3 | 3.8 | 0.5 | 3.0 |
| Chlorfenapyr | PS MITI | 2 | 247 | 0.8 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 1.0 |
| Diphenamid | S FUNG | 2 | 350 | 0.6 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.0 | 1.0 |
| Imidacloprid olefin | S NEO | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 554.0 | 554.0 | 554.0 | 554.0 | 554.0 | 554.0 | --- | 25.0 |
| Sethoxydim | S HERB | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 173.0 | 173.0 | 173.0 | 173.0 | 173.0 | 173.0 | --- | 1.0 |
| Acephate | S OP | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 163.0 | 163.0 | 163.0 | 163.0 | 163.0 | 163.0 | --- | 35.0 |
| Imidacloprid, 5-hydroxy | S NEO | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 152.0 | 152.0 | 152.0 | 152.0 | 152.0 | 152.0 | --- | 25.0 |
| Amicarbazone | HERB | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 98.0 | 98.0 | 98.0 | 98.0 | 98.0 | 98.0 | --- | 30.0 |
| Phenothrin | PYR | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 83.9 | 83.9 | 83.9 | 83.9 | 83.9 | 83.9 | --- | 10.0 |
| Fenamidone | FUNG | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 73.9 | 73.9 | 73.9 | 73.9 | 73.9 | 73.9 | --- | 10.0 |
| Thiamethoxam | S NEO | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 53.3 | 53.3 | 53.3 | 53.3 | 53.3 | 53.3 | --- | 5.0 |
| Phosalone | OP | 1 | 247 | 0.4 | 31.3 | 31.3 | 31.3 | 31.3 | 31.3 | 31.3 | --- | 10.0 |
| Fipronil | INS | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 28.5 | 28.5 | 28.5 | 28.5 | 28.5 | 28.5 | --- | 1.0 |
| Chlorfenvinphos | OP | 1 | 247 | 0.4 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | --- | 6.0 |
| Iprodione | FUNG | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | 10.3 | --- | 10.0 |
| Spiromesifen | S INS | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | --- | 10.0 |
| Tetramethrin | PYR | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | --- | 6.0 |
| Tribufos = DEF | SYN | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.5 | --- | 2.0 |
| Spirodiclofen | MITI | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.9 | --- | 1.0 |
| Heptachlor epoxide | CYC | 1 | 350 | 0.3 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.7 | --- | 1.0 |
*Carbendazim is also a degradate of benomyl; Thiabendazole is a degradate of thiophanate methyl.
#
Class: CAR = carbamate, CYC = cyclodiene, FORM = formamidine, FUNG = fungicide, HERB = herbicide, IGR = insect growth regulator, INS = misc. insecticide, MITI = miticide, NEO = neonicotinoid, OC = organochlorine, OP = organophosphate, PS = partial systemic, PYR = pyrethroid, S = systemic.
§
Mean and SEM for detections > LOD. †LOD = limit of detection (ppb).