Table 4.

Associations of Lung Cancer Risk With Duration of Use^a and Daily Dose^b During the Previous 10 Years of β-Carotene, Retinol, Total Vitamin A, Lutein, and Lycopene Supplements, Stratified by Smoking Status, the VITAL Study, Washington State, 2000–2002 (n = 77,126)^c

	Lung Cancer Cases		Current Smokers (n = 6,313)		Former Smokers, Quit <10 Years Ago (n = 4,933)		Former Smokers, Quit ≥10 Years Ago (n = 27,907)
	No.	%	Adjusted Hazard Ratiod	95% CI	Adjusted Hazard Ratiod	95% CI	Adjusted Hazard Ratiod	95% CI
β-Carotene (no. of yearsa used over 10 years)e
No use	454	89	1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)
1–3 years	26	5	1.56	0.74, 3.25	1.58	0.67, 3.73	0.76	0.33, 1.74
≥4 years	32	6	0.72	0.26, 2.02	1.17	0.41, 3.31	1.29	0.74, 2.27
Overall P			0.38		0.57		0.51
P for trend			0.57		0.89		0.25
			P for interaction = 0.57
β-Carotene (10-year average daily dose)e
No use	178	35	1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)
>0–1,200 mcg	286	56	0.84	0.56, 1.26	1.04	0.63, 1.71	0.94	0.68, 1.31
>1,200 mcg	49	10	0.96	0.45, 2.07	1.52	0.64, 3.60	1.06	0.61, 1.84
Overall P			0.73		0.60		0.85
P for trend			0.59		0.49		0.98
			P for interaction = 0.50
Retinol (no. of yearsa used over 10 years)
No use	438	87	1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)
1–3 years	22	4	0.97	0.69, 1.36	0.87	0.55, 1.36	0.99	0.74, 1.33
≥4 years	44	9	1.34	0.78, 2.29	1.43	0.72, 2.84	1.05	0.66, 1.65
Overall P			0.48		0.32		0.97
P for trend			0.53		0.68		0.90
			P for interaction = 0.98
Retinol (10-year average daily dose)
No use	176	35	1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)
>0–1,200 mcg	274	54	1.58	0.77, 3.24	1.60	0.65, 3.96	1.10	0.56, 2.15
>1,200 mcg	60	12	1.38	0.75, 2.56	1.97	0.95, 4.10	1.46	0.93, 2.29
Overall P			0.29		0.13		0.25
P for trend			0.11		0.32		0.04
			P for interaction = 0.18
Total vitamin A (10-year average daily dose)
No use	173	34	1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)
>0–1,500 mcg	269	53	0.99	0.70, 1.40	0.80	0.50, 1.26	0.99	0.73, 1.33
>1,500 mcg	64	13	1.13	0.66, 1.94	1.32	0.71, 2.47	1.05	0.68, 1.61
Overall P			0.89		0.23		0.96
P for trend			0.76		0.78		0.89
			P for interaction = 0.12
Lutein (over 10 years)
No use	318	61	1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)
Multivitamin use only	181	35	0.92	0.65, 1.31	0.92	0.51, 1.41	0.90	0.68, 1.19
Individual supplement use	20	4	3.31	1.53, 7.16	1.16	0.28, 4.78	1.58	0.77, 3.23
Overall P			0.006		0.89		0.29
P for trend			0.39		0.95		0.94
			P for interaction = 0.22
Lycopene (over 10 years)
No use	399	77	1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)		1.00 (Ref)
Multivitamin use only	120	23	1.22	0.75, 1.76	0.96	0.58, 1.59	1.02	0.75, 1.39
Individual supplement use	2	0.4					1.65	0.41, 6.65
Overall P			0.56		0.99		0.78
P for trend			0.36		0.81		0.72
			P for interaction = 0.99

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; Ref, referent; VITAL, VITamins And Lifestyle.

^aBased on duration (years) of use of the individual (single) supplement.

^bDaily dose includes combined intakes from multivitamins and individual (single) supplements.

^cFor all supplements, <5% of the data were missing; percentages are of the total. Numbers may not sum to the total and percentages may not add to 100% because of missing data and/or rounding.

^dAdjusted for age, gender, years of smoking, pack-years, and pack-years squared.

^eAlso adjusted for fruit and vegetable intake, physical activity, supplemental vitamin E use, and body mass index.