Figure 4.

Flexion of the cervical vertebra of Brachiosaurus and suspension on the ribs results in a regular, mainly compressional stress distribution. (a) Von Mises comparative stresses, (b) main stress displayed as vector plots in N mm⁻², (c) diagram of necessary forces (F) and spring stiffness (C) in relation with FEA: force reduction is dependent on the assumed spring stiffness; (d) biomechanical model for a generalized sauropod neck with main bracing structures, representing a segmented cantilever loaded by its own weight (G). The intercostal ligaments represent only one reconstruction possibility, the alternative to which would be ossified tendons of axial neck muscles.