Table 2.
Emotions: standardized loadings and error variances of the measurement model and descriptive statistics
| Emotion | Frustration/powerlessness | Positive emotion | Anxiety/fear | Error variance | M | SD |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Helplessness | 0.67* | – | – | 0.56 | 2.73 | 3.07 |
| Frustration | 0.65* | – | – | 0.58 | 3.80 | 3.51 |
| Sadness | 0.63* | – | – | 0.60 | 3.79 | 3.20 |
| Anger | 0.60* | – | – | 0.64 | 2.89 | 3.03 |
| Guilt | 0.53* | – | – | 0.72 | 2.01 | 2.86 |
| Shame | 0.51* | – | – | 0.74 | 3.26 | 3.23 |
| Disgustc | 0.49* | – | – | 0.76 | 0.38 | 0.49 |
| Curiositya | – | 0.70* | – | 0.51 | 4.69 | 2.97 |
| Interesta | – | 0.65* | – | 0.58 | 5.26 | 2.80 |
| Happiness | – | 0.61* | – | 0.62 | 2.80 | 2.60 |
| Surprise | – | 0.56* | – | 0.68 | 2.70 | 2.65 |
| Challengeb | – | 0.47* | – | 0.78 | 5.86 | 3.29 |
| Prideb | – | 0.41* | – | 0.83 | 4.01 | 3.36 |
| Hope | – | 0.40* | – | 0.84 | 7.48 | 2.60 |
| Relief | – | 0.39* | – | 0.85 | 4.68 | 3.77 |
| Fear | – | – | 0.90* | 0.19 | 7.49 | 2.53 |
| Anxiety | – | – | 0.80* | 0.36 | 7.74 | 2.56 |
| Boredom | 0.47* | – | −0.56* | 0.72 | 1.82 | 2.46 |
* p < 0.05
a,bDue to the semantic similarity between “Curiosity” and “Interest,” and between “Challenge” and “Pride,” the errors between these two pairs of emotions were allowed to be correlated (a error correlation = 0.18; b error correlation = 0.23)
cDisgust ratings were dichotomized