Table 3.

Viruses that promote or subvert autophagy

Virus	Virus effect(s) on autophagy	Effect(s) on host-pathogen interactions	References
DNA viruses
Herpesviridae
VZV	Infection induces autophagy in cultured cells and human zoster vesicles	Unknown	[86]
EBV	EBV latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) induces autophagy possibly to regulate its own levels and block its cytostatic effects on B cells	Unknown	[87]
Hepadnaviridae
Hepatitis B Virus	HBV × protein enhances Beclin 1 promoter activity and autophagy in hepatocytes	Unknown	[102]
Papovaviridae
Human papillomavirus type 16	HPV16 E7 protein expression in human keratinocytes promotes 3-MA-sensitive accumulation of LC3-II	Unknown	[103]
Parvoviridae
Human parvovirus B19	B19 infection of erythroid cells induces mitochondrial autophagy	Autophagy induction inhibits B19-mediated apoptosis.	[101]
Polyomaviridae
Simian virus 40	Small T antigen activates AMPK leading to mTOR inhibition and autophagy enhancement in HEK cells	Protects cells from glucose deprivation	[104]
RNA viruses
Retroviridae
HIV1	HIV-1 Gag induces early stage autophagosomes and associates with LC3	Proposed role in Gag processing	[82]
	HIV-1 Env protein expression on surface of infected cell induces autophagy gene- mediated cell death in adjacent cells by binding to CD4 and CXCR4. Fusogenic function of gp41 protein involved	Proposed mechanism of CD4+ T cell depletion in HIV-infected individuals	[92,93]
Orthomyxoviridae
Influenza A virus	Infection increases autophagy and autophagic flux in vitro through unknown mechanism	Increases viral replication and yield	[94]
Flaviviridae
Dengue virus	Infection induces autophagy in vitro. Viral replication proteins associate with amphisomes. Potential role for autolysosomes in viral replication	Autophagy increases viral yield	[95,110,111]
Hepatitis C virus	Induction of early stages of autophagy in hepatocyte cell lines possibly through induction of unfolded protein response. Later stages of autophagy blocked by unknown mechanism	Increases HCV replication	[96,97]
Picornaviridae
Poliovirus	Infection induces LC3- positive autophagosome-like structures with proposed roles as scaffold for viral genome replication and in non-lytic virus egress	Increases viral replication and yields	[106,108]
Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3)	CVB3 induces autophagosome-like structures but blocks maturation to autolysosomes through unknown mechanism	Increases viral replication and yields	[107]
Coxsackievirus B4 (CVB4)	CVB4 induces autophagy in rat primary neurons through unknown mechanism involving activation of calpains	Promotes calpain activity	[98]
Reoviridae
Rotavirus	Viral NSP4 co-localises with LC3 on viroplasms which are sites of nascent RNA replication	Unknown	[109]