Table 2.

Reported effects of progesterone and its derivatives on the immune system and immunobiology of HIV-1 infection

Reported effect of progesterone or its derivatives	Refs.
Inhibition of IgG and IgA production and transepithelial transport	78,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,129,130,131,132,133,134
Decreased frequency of antibody-secreting cells in women and female macaques	90,96
Decreased specific IgG and IgA responses after mucosal immunization with attenuated HSV-2; induction of permissive conditions for intravaginal infection of mice with HSV-2 and Chlamydia trachomatis	132,133,134
Inhibition of T cell responses and cytotoxic activity	139,140,141,142,143,147
Inhibition of perforin expression in T cells	140,141,142,144,145,146
Decreased proliferation and Th1-type cytokine production by VZV-specific CD4+ T cells in HIV-1 patients	148
Altered migration and decreased activity of NK cells	105,106,106,135,159,251,252
PIBF-mediated shift toward Th2 cytokine expression profile	133,149,150,151,152,153,154
Altered migration and infiltration of lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells into the female genital tract tissues	117,118,157,158,183,191,253
Increased expression of CCR5 on cervical CD4+ lymphocytes	81,82
Thinning of cervicovaginal epithelium in rhesus macaques	42,66
Increased frequency of LCs in vaginal epithelium	76,77
Regulation of HIV replication and LTR activity	254
Suppression of IL-1, IL-2, and IL-6 release by human lymphocytes	148,177
Inhibition of TLR-9-induced IFN-α production by human and mouse pDCs	162
Increased shedding of HIV-1 in the genital tract	35,36,37
Decreased FcγR expression on monocytes	159,160
Decreased vaginal colonization with H2O2-producing Lactobacillus	70

VZV, Varicella-zoster virus; TLR, Toll-like receptor; LTR, long terminal repeat; pDC, plasmocytoid dendritic cell.