Table 1.
Memory Control Theory Classification Scheme, With Percentage of Each Age Group Who Were Coded as Manifesting Each Cause of Control
| Control classification | Young | Older | Total Sample |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Control over memory processes | |||
| a. Internal aids | 87.0 | 82.5 | 84.7 |
| b. External aids* | 58.4 | 75.0 | 66.9 |
| c. Directed attention / concentration / practice | 64.9 | 75.0 | 70.1 |
| d. Metacognitive control ** | 72.7 | 35.0 | 53.5 |
| 2. Optimize PHYSICAL health to affect memory | |||
| a. Nutrition, diet, vitamins | 9.1 | 13.8 | 11.5 |
| b. Physical exercise | 6.5 | 12.5 | 9.6 |
| c. Wellness practices (other than a or b) | 3.9 | 5.0 | 4.5 |
| d. Active lifestyle ** | 1.3 | 20.0 | 10.8 |
| 3. Optimize COGNITIVE health to affect memory | |||
| a. Exercise mind ** | 11.7 | 41.2 | 26.8 |
| b. Exercise memory (memory-specific exercises)* | 19.5 | 37.5 | 28.7 |
| c. Increase Knowledge* | 5.2 | 15.0 | 10.2 |
| 4. Attitude and belief management to affect memory | |||
| a. Positive attitude ** | 3.9 | 17.5 | 10.8 |
| b. Motivation / goals / interest * | 81.8 | 92.5 | 87.3 |
| c. Control dysfunctional thought & belief restructuring | 1.3 | 6.2 | 3.8 |
| d. Faith, spiritual practice, prayer | 0.0 | 3.8 | 1.9 |
| e. Self-efficacy, confidence | 1.3 | 6.2 | 3.8 |
| 5. Manipulate current affective or physiological state | |||
| a. Positive states | 3.9 | 7.5 | 5.7 |
| b. Negative states | 2.6 | 1.2 | 1.9 |
|
6. Manipulate environmental context (i.e., go to quiet place)* |
9.1 | 1.2 | 5.1 |
| Uncontrollable Influences / Ways of not having control | |||
| 1. General Lack of control | 37.7 | 50.0 | 43.9 |
| 2. Internal Influences | |||
| a. Poor skills | 13.0 | 8.8 | 10.8 |
| b. No metacognitive knowledge of skills* | 18.2 | 5.0 | 11.5 |
| c. Experience / life history | 35.1 | 43.8 | 39.5 |
| d. Retrieval block / temporary inaccessibility** | 5.2 | 35.0 | 20.4 |
| e. Age/aging | 42.9 | 56.2 | 49.7 |
| f. Genetics / heredity | 11.7 | 22.5 | 17.2 |
| g. Poor physical health (e.g., illness)** | 16.9 | 35.0 | 26.1 |
| h. Sensory / perceptual deficits (e.g. poor vision or audition)** |
0.0 | 8.8 | 4.5 |
| i. Fixed ability (general) | 48.1 | 52.5 | 50.3 |
| j. Lack of concentration* | 10.4 | 23.8 | 17.2 |
| k. Fixed ability (+) | 39.0 | 32.5 | 35.7 |
| l. Fixed ability (−) due to insufficient cognitive resources |
27.3 | 28.8 | 28.0 |
| m. Emotional states | 48.1 | 55.0 | 51.6 |
| n. Dysfunctional beliefs | 9.1 | 10.0 | 9.6 |
| 3. External Influences | |||
| a. Context: Other persons (present only) | |||
| i) Persons as external aids (+)** | 5.2 | 18.8 | 12.1 |
| ii) Persons as distractors (−) | 13.0 | 5.0 | 8.9 |
| b. Context: Environmental stressors ** | 84.4 | 65.0 | 74.5 |
| c. Task characteristics ** | 98.7 | 86.2 | 92.4 |
| d. Other (e.g., luck, hunger, sleepy) | 41.6 | 32.5 | 37.0 |
| e. External cause leading to Internal state | 15.6 | 17.5 | 16.6 |
Note. Asterisks indicate significant χ2 test for age group differences in proportions.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.