Table 1.
CCL2 promotes prostate cancer tumorigenesis and metastasis
| Source of CCL2 |
CCL2 functions | Potential mechanisms | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| LNCaP, PC3, VCaP |
Promotes cancer cell proliferation; Protects autophagic cell death |
PI3K/AKT-dependent; autocrine and paracrine manners; PI3K/Akt- dependent survivin up- regulation |
[6-8, 26] |
| LNCaP, PC3, VCaP |
Induces cancer cell migration and invasion |
PAR-1 mediates Rho activation; Differential regulation of PKC and MMP-9 activation |
[6-8, 69] |
| HBME | Promotes PC3 cells transendothelial cell migration |
Small GTPase Rac activation | [28] |
| HBME, VCaP, PC3, LNCaP |
Indirectly induces tumor angiogenesis |
VEGF-A induction from TAMs; FGF-8b production |
[32, 33, 70] |
| Osteoblast | PTHrP induces CCL2 production |
NFκB and C/EBPβ activation |
[9, 32] |
| PC3, C4-2B, Osteoclast, hFOB, HBME |
Mediates osteoclastogenesis |
RANKL-dependent and - independent pathway |
[9, 19, 25, 47] |
| VCaP, PC3 | Promotes tumor growth in vivo |
Regulation of TAMs infiltration |
[33] |