Table 2. Hypotheses and predictions tested for spatial distribution of ape nest and elephant dung counts.

Covariate	Species1	Hypothesis	Prediction	Supported (this study)
Vegetation type	E,G	Attracted to forests rich in herbaceous food plants	Higher density found in dense understory mixed-forests, swamp and secondary forests	Partially2
	C	Attracted to forests rich in mature fruiting trees	Higher density in primary closed canopy mixed-forest	Partially2
Bais and yangas 3	E, G	Attracted to bais and yangas for aquatic herbaceous food, minerals and water	Density negatively associated with increasing distance away from bais Density positively associated with increasing density of yangas	Yes
Open roads	E,G,C	Avoid open access roads with regular human activity	Density positively associated with increasing distance away from roads	Yes (E,C)No (G)
Navigable rivers	E,G,C	Avoid rivers with relatively regular human activity	Density positively associated with increasing distance away from rivers	No
Human settlements	E,G,C	Avoid human settlements	Density positively associated with increasing distance away from human settlements	No
Logging history	E,G	Attracted by the re-growth of herbaceous food plants in secondary forests following logging activities	Density positively associated with increasing time since start of logging activities (of first cycle of selective logging if more than one cycle)	Yes
	C	Deterred by loss of canopy cover and removal of fruiting trees by logging activities	Density negatively associated with increasing time since start of logging activities	Yes
Distance to National Park	E,G,C	Attracted to NNNP where human disturbance is low	Density negatively associated with increasing distance away from the NNNP border	Yes (E,C)No (G)
Management plan status	E,G,C	Do not avoid areas where negative impacts of human activities are mitigated	Density positively associated with higher conservation management status	Yes

¹Hypotheses and predictions are species-specific and not all covariates apply to all species: E = Elephant, G = Gorilla, C = Chimpanzee.

²Not supported by model-based analysis but supported in part by design-based estimates by habitat type.

³Natural forest clearings that provide a concentrated, year-round source of herbaceous food plants and minerals for several wildlife species. Bais are fed by a permanent running water source, whereas yangas are ‘closed’ with no surface water entry or exit point.