TABLE II. Behavioral Categories.

Indices of Psychological Disturbance (i.e., Depressivea and Anxiety-relatedb) Body shake: Rapid shaking of head and shoulders Scratch: Vigorous strokes of the hair (>1 motion) Self-groom: Any picking, stroking, and/or licking of one's own body hair (>1 motion), including biting or chewing on nails Slump: Sustained inactivity in contact with object or caging in a self-enclosed position or slumped body posture with head at or lower than shoulder level Vigilant scanning: Monkey is alert, avoids eye contact, and eyes are darting back and forth scanning social environment Yawn: Monkey opens mouth wide, often exposing teeth

Abnormal: Locomotor stereotypes including bizarre posture, flip, floating limb, head toss, jump, pace, rock, spin, and stereotype; other abnormal behavior categories (e.g., overgrooming) occurred too rarely to be analyzed

Eat: Common usage, includes holding food

Forage: Manipulating foraging boards with hands or mouth; eating or attempting to remove seeds/foraging mix off board

Inactive: Passive or sleeping

Locomotion: Walk, climb, jump (two steps or more)

Manipulate Manipulate other: Using hands, feet, or mouth to explore inanimate objects other than enrichment Attack enrichment: Bite or grab enrichment in an aggressive manner Display with enrichment: Use enrichment to threaten by shaking, throwing, etc. Manual/oral enrichment manipulation: Touch, handle, forage, chew, bite (gently), lick, suck enrichment

Non-contact affiliative: Attempt to touch, lip-smack, present, coo calls

Contact affiliative: Groom, affiliative contact, social overpluck, social play, cling, mount, and genital explore

Agonisticc Contact aggression: Includes moderate aggressive contact and severe aggressive contact Non-contact aggression: Includes cage shake, crook tail, ear flick, grab at, jaw snap, lung, open-mouth stare, stare, teeth grinding, and attempt to bite Receive contact aggression: Includes moderate aggressive contact and severe aggressive contact Receive non-contact aggression: Includes cage shake, crook tail, ear flick, grab at, jaw snap, lunge, open-mouth stare, stare, teeth grinding, and attempt to bite

Analysis performed on bolded behavioral categories.

^aAfter Shively et al. [1997, 2005].

^bSelf-directed displacement behavior that has been demonstrated to be associated with stress [Baker & Aureli, 1997; Maestripieri et al., 1992; Schino et al., 1996].

^cSubmissive behaviors (fear grimace, bob, rapid glances, cringe, and rump present) and receipt of submission were included in the ethogram but not analyzed because they were only observed in one animal in one phase.